A value-added analysis of the Heysel Stadium soccer riot

On May 29, 1985, a riot occurred at the European Cup Final soccer championship between Liverpool and Juventus at Heysel Stadium in Brussels, Belgium. The riot, which caused the death of thirty-nine soccer fans, had a profound effect on English society as well as on professional soccer. This essay uses Smelser’s (1962) general model of collective behavior to analyze data derived from a number of sources describing the Heysel Stadium riot. In particular, this analysis focuses on a period of four hours, from the beginning of the riot at about 7:30 p.m. until the conclusion of the match around 11:30 p.m.     

How anterior pelvic tilt affects the lower extremity kinematics during the late swing phase in soccer players while running: A time series analysis

Anterior pelvic tilt has been proposed to predispose the hamstring in soccer players to injury at the late swing phase during a sprint, however the mechanism on how the changes in the alignment would affect the kinematics are still unclear. Thirty-four male amateur soccer players were recruited for this study. Pelvic tilt was measured using the DIERS Formetric 4D. Lower extremity angles were recorded using an 8-camera Vicon motion capture system at 200 Hz while the athlete performed a high speed run on a motorised treadmill. Late swing phase was extracted from 5 running cycle which were later analysed using statistical parametric mapping (SPM). The results show that the increase of anterior pelvic tilt angle was significantly correlated with hip (r = −0.421 to −0.462, p = 0.015) and knee flexion (r = −0.424 to −0.472, p = 0.026) values. No other correlation was found between the anterior pelvic tilt and the angles at the coronal plane. By using time series analysis it was shown that the anterior pelvic tilt measured in a standing position would affect the adjacent segments’ kinematics while running as suggested in the kinetic chain theory; which would potentially predispose the soccer athletes to hamstring injury by maintaining knee extension.     

The black community's reactions to the 1992 los angeles riot

This article is based on field (street) interviews with a sample of 227 black community members living and/or working in South Central Los Angeles at the time of the 1992 riot. The interview instrument comprises 20 questions designed to (1) ascertain the reactions and feelings of black community members to the riot; and (2) compare a sample of black participants in the riot with nonparticipants. The participant group was found to be more frequently younger males with less education and lower income, and they were more likely to have arrest records prior to the riot than nonparticipants. Though reactions and feelings were mixed and contradictory, both groups reported an overall acceptance of the disorders. Differentials in reactions were in degree rather than in kind. Most objected to the riot in principle but concluded that collective violence “pays off.” The preriot structural facilitators (poverty, relative deprivation, unemployment, police brutality, racial discrimination, and negative police‐community relations) were similar to those found in the riot literature. Whatever the participants’ reasons and justifications for rioting might be, they present themselves as worthy protesters and freedom fighters. Unless their message is heeded and acted upon by ameliorating their adverse social, economic, and political conditions, similar riots are likely to occur.     

Interval endurance capacity of talented youth soccer players

The purpose of this study, in which 113 talented youth soccer players (M = 16.0 yr., SD = 1.5), selected by their age and level of performance participated, was to investigate interval endurance capacity needed to play at the highest level of competition in the age-category 12 through 18. Multivariate analyses of covariance with factors of level of performance and age category showed that players ages 16 through 18 years outscored the players ages 12 through 15 years on the interval endurance capacity (p < .05). In both age categories, elite players outscored less skilled players (p < .05). In the age category 12-15 years, the elite players participated more in soccer training than less skilled players (p < .05), whereas less skilled players participated more in additional training than the elite players (p < .05). No differences were found for total training (p > .05). In conclusion, development of the interval endurance capacity seems crucial for a talented youth soccer player to be successful.     

The commitment of young soccer players

The main purpose of this study was to test the Sport Commitment Model in young soccer players. Participants' ( N = 437) age ranged from 14 to 16 years. Based on the sport commitment model proposed by Scanlan and colleagues, 6 scales and 28-items constitute the Sport Commitment Questionnaire (SCQ). Results of this study provide some support for the reliability and validity of the SCQ, using a sample of young soccer players. Reliability analysis provided acceptable internal consistency for four scales: Sport Commitment, Sport Enjoyment, Involvement Alternatives and Social Constraints. Sport Enjoyment (Beta= .56, p <.001) and Involvement Alternatives (Beta= -.40, p <.001) were the strongest sport commitment predictors. Further studies with a broader age range, different genders, and other sports or competitive levels are required to continue analyzing the sport commitment model.     

The use of a resident daily scheduling procedure to increase appropriate social,ward, and scheduling behavior in adult psychiatric residents (patients)

The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate the efficacy of a goal orientation procedure in their treatment of apathy, isolation, and insufficient goal setting skills in chronic psychiatric residents. The experiment was conducted in a behaviorally-oriented deinstitutionalization program in a state psychiatric hospital. Three male and four female chronic psychiatric residents served as research participants. A group repeated measures design with four within-participant phases (ABA‘B’) was utilized. The goal orientation procedure included a written schedule that was completed by each research participant daily. This Daily Living Schedule required that a behavior be specified by the participant for every half-hour period during the day (8:30 a.m. to 9:00 p.m.). During all four phases of the experiment, research participants were observed on the ward from 8:30 a.m. to 12:00 noon and 1:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. for engagement in scheduled target behaviors. The daily scheduling procedure produced substantial increases in appropriate behavior such as social activities, ward jobs, and participation in treatment programs, whereas decrease were produced in inappropriate behavior such as isolation and day time sleeping.     

Self-reported adjustment of teenagers at soccer training centers: the Soccer Trainee Adjustment Scale

The aim of this study was to develop a questionnaire to measure adjustment of teenagers at soccer training centers, particularly newcomers. The Soccer Trainee Adjustment Scale was adapted from the Institutional Integration Scale and assesses the trainee's adjustment to operating and social activities. The scale was tested on a sample of 136 trainees from four soccer centers. Exploratory analysis indicated that the 13 items formed five factors: peer adjustment, boarding supervisor adjustment, soccer adjustment, scholastic adjustment, and boarding adjustment. These factors had internal consistency reliability ranging from .76 to .94.     

“Girls should cook,rather than kick!” – Female soccer players under stereotype threat

Based on the stereotype threat theory (Steele & Aronson, 1995), we tested if female soccer players’ performance decreased when the stereotype, “females are bad at soccer,” was activated. Additionally, girls under stereotype threat were assumed to experience lower flow while playing soccer and to be more worried, as compared to those in the control condition. The hypotheses were tested in three German soccer clubs (N = 36; age: M = 14.94, SD = 1.22). Participants completed a dribbling task two times (pre-post design) while their time was recorded. Flow and worry were assessed after each dribbling task. In between the two dribbling tasks, the girls read an article about either the incompetence of female soccer players or the growing popularity of soccer. The results showed that girls in the stereotype threat condition needed significantly more time to complete the dribbling task than did those in the control condition. No differences between the two conditions were observed with regard to flow and worry. These findings are discussed in terms of different mediating processes postulated in the stereotype threat literature focusing on sports.     

Perceived motivational climate in male youth soccer: relations to social–moral functioning,sportspersonship and team norm perceptions

Aim: To investigate the relationship between the perceived motivational climate, sportspersonship, social–moral functioning and team norms in a sample of young male Norwegian soccer players.Hypotheses: It was expected that a performance-oriented motivational climate would be associated with lower levels of social–moral functioning, sportspersonship and the perceptions of team norms that would approve of illegitimate behaviours in soccer. By contrast, a mastery-oriented climate was hypothesised to be beneficial with respect to social–moral functioning, sporstspersonship and morally constructive team norm perceptions.Method: A cross-sectional study of 279 male soccer players (aged 12–14 years) taking part in the international youth soccer tournament, The Norway Cup, was conducted in which players responded to a questionnaire measuring different dimensions of social–moral functioning, including moral judgements, priority for more mature social–moral motives or reasons faced with moral dilemmas, amoral and sportspersonship behaviours and team norm perceptions.Results: Canonical correlation analysis coupled with multivariate analysis of variance showed that players who perceived the motivational climate as predominantly mastery oriented reported more mature levels of social–moral reasoning and better sportspersonhip behaviours. These players were also less apt to report amoral behaviour and perceive team norms as strongly disapproving of pro-aggressiveness. In contrast, players perceiving the motivational climate as predominantly performance-oriented were more apt to report amoral behaviours in soccer and were less likely to express sportspersonship behaviour.Conclusions: The findings illustrate the importance of studying motivational conditions in order to provide an understanding of social–moral functioning, sportspersonship and social–moral team norms in youth soccer.     

Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360°-environment – Differences between age groups and performance levels

IntroductionAn important requirement for soccer players is the accurate and rapid processing of dynamic and complex visual scenes. Therefore, in high-level youth soccer the players’ perceptual-cognitive skills are highly relevant from a scientific and practical point of view. The aim of the present study was to investigate differences in perceptual-cognitive performance between youth soccer players of different age groups and soccer performance levels in a dynamic 360°-environment.MethodsIn a sample of 292 elite and sub-elite youth soccer players from the age groups U12–U23, perceptual-cognitive skills were assessed using a 360°-multiple object tracking task. An 8 × 2 (age group x performance level) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of age group and soccer performance level on performance in the task.ResultsThe analyses revealed a significant main effect of age group. Post hoc analyses showed that youth players belonging to the older age groups (U16, U17, U19, and U23) performed significantly better in the 360°-multiple object tracking task than players of the youngest age group (U12). Yet no significant age-related differences could be found from age group U16 on. Furthermore, there was a significant effect of soccer performance level on the 360°-multiple object tracking performance in favor of the elite players. Significant differences between elite and sub-elite players within the same age group were only present in the highest age groups U19 and U23.ConclusionsThe results suggest that in a dynamic 360°-environment highly talented youth soccer players show better perceptual-cognitive performance with increasing age. Furthermore, elite youth players exhibit distinctive perceptual-cognitive abilities particularly at the highest age groups. These findings provide interesting implications for science and practice regarding the perceptual-cognitive skills of talented soccer players and their role in talent development.     

Gaze behaviors of goaltenders under spatial-temporal constraints

It is still not known what underlies successful performance in goaltending. Some studies have reported that advanced cues from the shooter's body (hip, kicking leg or support leg) are most important (Savelsbergh, G. J. P., Williams, A. M., Van der Kamp, J., & Ward, P. (2002). Visual search, anticipation and expertise in soccer goalkeepers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 279-287; Savelsbergh, G. J. P., Williams, A. M., Van der Kamp, J., & Ward, P. (2005). Anticipation and visual search behaviour in expert soccer goalkeepers. Ergonomics, 48, 1686-1697; Williams, A. M., & Burwitz, L. (1993). Advanced cue utilization in soccer. In T. Reilly, J. Clarys, & A. Stibbe (Eds.), Science and football II (pp. 239-243). London, England: E&FN Spon), while others have found that the early tracking of the object prior to and during flight is most critical (Bard, C., & Fleury, M. (1981). Considering eye movement as a predictor of attainment. In: I. M. Cockerill, & W. M. MacGillvary (Eds.), Vision and Sport (pp. 28-41). Cheltenham, England: Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.). These results are similar to those found in a number of interceptive timing studies (Land, M. F., & McLeod, P. (2000). From eye movements to actions: How batsmen hit the ball. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 1340-1345; Ripoll and Fleurance, 1988; Vickers, J. N., & Adolphe, R. M. (1997). Gaze behaviour during a ball tracking and aiming skill. International Journal of Sports Vision, 4, 18-27). The coupled gaze and motor behavior of elite goaltenders were determined while responding to wrist shots taken from 5 m and 10 m on ice. The results showed that the goalies faced shots that were significantly different in phase durations due to distance (5 versus 10 m), but this was not a factor in making saves. Instead, the ability to stop the puck was dependent on the location, onset and duration of the final fixation/tracking gaze (or quiet eye) prior to initiating the saving action. The relative onset of quiet eye was significantly (p<.001) earlier (8.6%) and the duration was longer on saves (M=80.5%; 952.3 ms) compared to goals (onset 18.86%; M=70.1%, 826.1 ms). The quiet eye was located on the puck/stick during the preparation and execution of the shot in 70.53% of all trials, or on the ice in front of the release point of the puck (25.68%) and rarely on the body of the shooter (2.1%). The results are discussed within the context of current research on goaltending with specific emphasis on the timing of critical cues and the effect of tasks constraints.     

Patrol evaluation research: a multiple-baseline analysis of saturation police patrolling during day and night hours

The effects of a carefully monitored and increased police patrol on the report of crime were examined in four patrol zones. Overall patrol movement was increased to four times normal levels and slow patrol movement (under 20 mph) to around 30 times normal levels for 10 days. The patrol was active in two zones between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. and in the other two zones between 7:00 p.m. and 3:00 a.m. A multiple-baseline design and time-series statistical analyses showed statistically reliable changes in reported levels of Part I crime (such as robbery, burglary, and aggravated assault) during both night patrols, but not in the day patrols. In both night-patrol zones, there were also reliable increases from saturation patrol to postsaturation patrol in report of Part I crime after the night patrol was terminated. Neither of the day patrols showed significant crime report changes on termination. Despite statistically reliable decreases in report of crime during nighttime hours, the value of saturation patrolling as a crime-prevention technique was questioned on cost/benefit grounds.     

Police intervention in riots: The role of accountability and group norms. A field experiment

This study explores the role of perceived accountability in riot police action. The basic hypothesis is that accountability, provided that non-violent norms are made salient, will lessen the chances of escalation of a conflict between police and demonstrators. Four platoons participated in a field experiment conducted at the Dutch Riot Police Academy, in which they played a riot simulation. In a 2 × 2 design, the effects of accountability and Department on attitudes and norms concerning the action of ‘police’ and ‘demonstrators’ were tested. Measurements were made before and after the simulation. Internal analysis, involving redefined accountability categories, provided support for our hypothesis. That is, perceived accountability proved to be related to a heightened public self-awareness, a less extremely positive evaluation of fellow group members, and less intergroup differentiation. The limitations of an internal analysis are discussed, as well as the importance of the nature of organizational norms and of the accountability forum in predicting the effect of accountability.     

Effects of the axis of rotation and primordially solicited limb of high level athletes in a mental rotation task

A recent set of studies has investigated the selective effects of particular physical activities that require full-body rotations, such as gymnastics and wrestling (Moreau, Clerc, Mansy-Dannay, & Guerrien, 2012; Steggemann, Engbert, & Weigelt, 2011), and demonstrated that practicing these activities imparts a clear advantage in in-plane body rotation performance. Other athletes, such as handball and soccer players, whose activities do require body rotations may have more experience with in-depth rotations. The present study examined the effect of two components that are differently solicited in sport practices on the mental rotation ability: the rotation axis (in-plane, in-depth) and the predominantly used limb (arms, legs). Handball players, soccer players, and gymnasts were asked to rotate handball and soccer strike images mentally, which were presented in different in-plane and in-depth orientations. The results revealed that handball and soccer players performed the in-depth rotations faster than in-plane rotations; however, the two rotation axes did not differ in gymnasts. In addition, soccer players performed the mental rotations of handball strike images slower. Our findings suggest that the development of mental rotation tasks that involve the major components of a physical activity allows and is necessary for specifying the links between this activity and the mental rotation performance.     

How Fragile Is Conditional Cooperation? A Field Experiment with Smartphones during the 2014 Soccer World Cup

We conducted an experiment in a highly cooperative environment to find out how a disruption, similar to a broken window, affects behavior. A centipede game was framed as a game of soccer and run with smartphones during a soccer public viewing event, that is, a Bavarian beer garden with a large screen displaying a soccer game. We provided some subjects with information that was supportive to cooperation and others with disruptive information, aimed at inducing a broken window effect. The disruption reduced the willingness to cooperate at the final stage of the game. But expectations regarding teammates remained unaffected such that cooperation at earlier stages remained high. Cooperation is thus not as fragile as one might fear. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Exploring perceptions about the feasibility of educational video resources as a strategy to support parental involvement in youth soccer

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to explore parents’ and coaches’ perceptions about educational video resources to support parents’ involvement in youth soccer.DesignUsing an instrumental, qualitative case study design, 21 parents and coaches were recruited to participate in an individual interview. All participants were involved in one of the developmental stages of youth sport participation (sampling, specialising or investment years) in soccer in South Australia. Elicitation tools were used in the individual interviews in the form of educational video resources designed for parents involved in youth soccer to prompt dialogue. All interview data was analysed thematically.ResultsThree main themes were developed from the thematic analysis, including ‘Importance of targeted curriculum’, ‘Integrated delivery model’ and ‘Strategies to maximise impact’ of video-based parent education. Overall, parents and coaches perceive educational video resources as a promising addition to broader strategies aimed at enhancing parental involvement in youth soccer.ConclusionsThe findings highlight parents’ and coaches’ perceptions about the potential utility of educational video resources as a tool to communicate, support and educate parents involved in youth soccer. However, the findings also highlight the need to consider how such an approach can be optimised, tailored, and supported within a broader intervention strategy.     

Using perceptual home-training to improve anticipation skills of soccer goalkeepers

ObjectiveThis study aims to test the effectiveness of a perceptual training concerning the anticipatory skills of soccer goalkeepers, by assessing their performances while engaged in predicting the direction of penalty kicks.DesignForty-two skilled goalkeepers were randomly assigned to three training groups: Experimental, placebo, and control. All the groups were tested at the beginning of the experiment and re-tested after a period of eight weeks.MethodThe pre-test consisted of the presentation of temporally occluded videos of penalties recorded from the goalkeeper's perspective, and participants had to predict the direction of the ball. The experimental group practiced with an interactive home-training, based on video analogous to those of the test, with the addition of both positive and negative feedback. The placebo group viewed television footage of penalty kick shoot-outs. Participants of both groups were free to schedule their own training/placebo sessions. Finally, the control group did not receive any treatment.ResultsThe results demonstrated the effectiveness of the home-training protocol, evidencing significant accuracy improvements between pre-test and post-test only for the experimental group.ConclusionsThe outcomes indicate that skilled athletes can benefit from perceptual training, which was not investigated before among soccer goalkeepers. Indeed, all the previous training studies concerning soccer penalty predictions were run on participants with either recreational or no goalkeeping experience at all. Moreover, the present training protocol is innovative because learners can schedule training sessions on their own. Finally, its usability suggests numerous potential applications.     

“Get it out the way. The wait's killing me.” hastening and hiding during soccer penalty kicks

ObjectivesIt has been suggested that hastening and hiding—rushing through penalty preparation and not looking at the goal when preparing the penalty kick—are associated with negative penalty taking performance. In the present study, we investigated how opposing players perceived these nonverbal behaviors, how they affect outcome expectations, and how they affect the behavior of opposing goalkeepers.DesignThe present study employs an experimental research design (Experiment 1: 2 (gaze behavior) × 3 (preparation time) design; Experiment 2: 2 (gaze behavior) × 2 (preparation time) design).MethodWe examined the perception of nonverbal hastening and hiding behavior using the point-light technique during the soccer penalty kick among goalkeepers (Experiment 1a; n = 20), and among outfield soccer players (Experiment 1b; n = 29). Furthermore, we analyzed how these respective penalty preparation strategies influenced the behavior of high-level goalkeepers (n = 12) under in situ conditions (Experiment 2).ResultsThe results from Experiment 1 demonstrated that penalty takers showing hastening and hiding behaviors are perceived more negatively by both soccer goalkeepers and outfield players: (i) they are considered to possess less positive attributes, (ii) to have less accuracy in their penalties, and (iii) likely to perform less well in penalty situations. Experiment 2 provided first evidence that goalkeepers initiate their movement later following the observation of hastening and hiding behaviors during the penalty preparation.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the importance of investigating nonverbal behavior in sports as these have a major impact on impression formation, expected performance, and actual behavior of opposing players in the soccer penalty situation.     

Types of errors by referees and perception of injustice by soccer players: a preliminary study

This study investigated the effect of referees' errors on players' perceived injustice in soccer. The conditions investigated were Referee Decision, with three types: Correctly Called a foul vs Wrongly Called a foul vs Did not Call a foul and Repetition of the Situation, with two types: Isolated vs Repeated. Male soccer players at regional and departmental levels of practice (N = 95, M(age) = 23.2, SD = 5.1) were asked to rank six hypothetical situations according to the perceived injustice. Analysis indicated significant effects of Referee Decisions and Repetition of the Situation on the perception of injustice, but showed no differences between the types of error. However, age and years of soccer experience were associated with perception of injustice when the referee correctly called a foul.