The Role of Source Confusions in Television's Cultivation of Social Reality Judgments

The chief hypothesis of this study was that errors in memory (specifically source confusions) contribute to the link between television viewing and social reality judgments. Fiction-to-news confusions (fictional programming remembered as news) were hypothesized to positively predict TV-biased judgments of reality. News-to-fiction confusions (news remembered as fiction) were hypothesized to negatively predict such judgments. The results of an experiment in which subjects watched television programming containing both news and fiction indicated that these hypotheses were supported. Levels of confusion interacted with daily television viewing and with the level of certainty attached to the confusions. A manipulation of the visual similarity of the news and fiction content affected subjects'tendency to make source confusions.     

A preliminary study on the relationship between characteristics of TV content and delayed speech development in young children

Our previous population survey of 18-month-old children suggested an association between delayed language development and heavy TV viewing. We therefore collected all 85 videos described as children's favorites in that questionnaire to examine relationships between the characteristics of habitually viewed videos and language development. In the language delayed group, compared to the non-delayed group, the types of videos preferred more were “realistic animations” and “baby education” and the characteristics of videos were contained few close-ups of characters facing viewers, continued uninterruptedly between stories, had constant movement or transformation of characters, had a high frame rate of animation, and that adults readily kept on watching the videos even with the sound off. These characteristics were seen more in videos the above two types. These findings imply that habitual television/video viewing with characteristics that are not apt to elicit parent–child communication for long hours may affect delayed language development in young children.     

An Empirical Examination of a Model of Social Climate in Elementary Schools

Although Gerbner and Gross (1976) maintained that television viewing cultivates impressions of the real world that are distorted in the direction of the TV version of reality, several studies (e.g., Doob & Macdonald, 1979) have found no relationship between viewing and perceptions of crime in the respondent's neighborhood. It is possible, however, that TV viewing may not affect perceptions of crime in the respondent's immediate environment but may affect perceptions of crime in more distant settings. In two separate studies, we examined the effects of TV viewing on perceptions of crime in the immediate neighborhood and on perceptions of crime in more distant, urban settings. Study 1, based on 372 nationwide telephone interviews, found that the total amount of TV viewed is related to fear of distant urban setting (i.e., New York City) but not to fear of respondent's own city or to fear of respondent's immediate neighborhood. Study 2, based on a survey of 192 undergraduates, found that the total amount of TV viewed is related to fear of distant urban setting (i.e., NYC) and to fear of less distant urban setting (i.e., downtown Chicago) but not to fear of respondent's immediate neighborhood. The implications of these studies for clearing up past confusions in the cultivation hypothesis literature are discussed.     

The Role of Television in the Socialization of Nonverbal Behavioral Skills

This study examined the relation between level of television viewing and ,nonverbal behavioral encoding skills among school-aged children. As predicted, frequent TV viewers communicated emotions common on television (happiness and sadness) better than emotions uncommon on television (disgust and fear/surprise), a pattern that did not emerge for infrequent TV viewers. Additionally, compared with infrequent TV viewers, frequent viewers were better encoders of spontaneous nonverbal displays, but worse encoders of posed displays. The results of a follow-up study suggest that this latter pattern may reflect a failure by children who are exposed to highly expressive television models to engage in active self-regulation of their nonverbal expressions.     

Parent–child interactions during traditional and interactive media settings: A pilot randomized control study

Parent–child interactions are pivotal for children's socioemotional development, yet might suffer with increased attention to screen media, as research has suggested. In response, we hypothesized that parent–child play on a tablet computer, as representative of interactive media, would generate higher‐quality parent–child interactions than toy play or watching TV . We examined the emotional availability of mothers and their 2‐year‐old child during the previous three contexts using a randomized crossover design (n = 22) in a laboratory room. Among other results, mothers were more sensitive and structuring during joint gaming on a tablet than when engaged in toy play or watching TV . In addition, mothers were more hostile toward their children during play with traditional toys than during joint tablet gaming and television co‐viewing. Such findings provide new insights into the impact of new media on parent–child interactions, chiefly by demonstrating that interactive media devices such as tablets can afford growth‐enhancing parent–child interactions.     

Tracking the psychosocial predictors of older individuals' television uses

The elderly spend considerable amounts of time with mass media, but little is known about the psychology of their viewing habits. This study compared the relative impact of social, structural, and psychosocial variables on the television uses of elderly viewers. The results of a survey of 113 older respondents indicated that psychosocial factors accounted for variance above and beyond that of demographic and situational factors in viewing of television entertainment programs, parasocial programs (e.g., soap operas), as well as in watching of television for companionship purposes. Emotional loneliness and locus of control proved particularly significant predictors of television behavior.     

Tracking the Psychosocial Predictors of Older Individuals' Television Uses

The elderly spend considerable amounts of time with mass media, but little is known about the psychology of their viewing habits. This study compared the relative impact of social, structural, and psychosocial variables on the television uses of elderly viewers. The results of a survey of 113 older respondents indicated that psychosocial factors accounted for variance above and beyond that of demographic and situational factors in viewing of television entertainment programs, para-social programs (e.g., soap operas), as well as in watching of television for companionship purposes. Emotional loneliness and locus of control proved particularly significant predictors of television behavior.     

Sexual Minority Identity,Viewing Motivations,and Viewing Frequency of LGB-Inclusive Television Among LGB Viewers

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between dimensions of sexual minority identity, viewing motivations, and viewing frequency of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB)-inclusive television (TV) among LGB viewers. Two hundred two LGB adults completed measures regarding sexual minority identity, TV viewing motivations, and frequency of viewing LGB-inclusive TV programs. Analyses revealed that dimensions of sexual minority identity (i.e., internalized homonegativity, acceptance concerns, and identity affirmation) were positively associated with a learning motivation for viewing LGB-inclusive TV. Moreover, a learning motivation mediated the relationship between dimensions of sexual minority identity and frequency of viewing LGB-inclusive TV. These findings have important implications for clinicians, and suggest that engaging with LGB-inclusive TV may represent an important coping strategy for LGB individuals dealing with identity concerns.     

A parent-administered program to reduce children's television viewing

A parent-administered program to reduce television viewing of primary school-aged children was tested on two boys and three girls from three different families who were heavy viewers of television. Children were given 20 unearned tokens each week by their parents, which they could exchange for up to 10 hours of viewing time. The child earned a gold token for viewing in accordance with the rules for 4 consecutive weeks, which was exchanged for a reward. Parents were given instructions to follow the program independently. Data on hours of television viewing, homework, and reading were recorded each day by one or both parents. A multiple-baseline analysis of the effects of the TV reduction program indicated that children reduced their baseline television viewing by more than half once the program was implemented, and continued to maintain these changes 6 months and 1 year after the program was discontinued. Reading time increased for all children whereas effects on homework varied across children. The results support the effectiveness of a parent-administered program for nonbehavior problem children who watch excessive amounts of television.     

Searching for Cognitive Processes in the Cultivation Effect Adult and Adolescent Samples in the United States and Australia

Research on the cultivation hypothesis has focused on whether relationships between television viewing and social reality beliefs truly exist or are artifacts. There is very little evidence about what cognitive processes allow viewers to construct television-biased beliefs. The present study tests two possible processes: First, that perceptions of the television world serve as an intermediate step between fragmented incidental learning from television and beliefs about the real world and second, that beliefs closely linked to television content are an intermediate step in implying more general values and beliefs. These two hypotheses were tested in one adult and three adolescent samples, two in the United States and two in Australia. Across a range of cultivation questions, the basic cultivation result generally replicated that heavy viewers had beliefs about the world that appeared influenced by television. However, neither process hypothesis was supported. Although the null findings on the first hypothesis do not rule out construction from learned fragments, findings on the second hypothesis contradict cultivation's second-order effect. “Close” beliefs and their implied counterparts were unrelated, and cultivation relationships for these implied variables occurred only for those with real-world biased “dose” beliefs. Exploration of this result demonstrated that cultivation of both kinds of beliefs occurred more of ten for adolescents with high academic skills, suggesting that if cultivation occurs, it is a more active and intellectually demanding process than previously proposed.     

Television viewing and the learning of sex-role stereotypes

This study was designed to determine the relationship between the amount of time children spend watching television and their knowledge of adult sex-role stereotypes. Males and females in grades 1, 3, 5, and 7 who were classified as heavy television viewers (25 or more hours per week) or light viewers (10 or less hours per week) both at the time of the study and 15 months previously were administered the Sex Stereotype Measure, an instrument designed to determine children's awareness of stereotyped sex-role perceptions held by adults. Heavy viewers were found to have more stereotyped perceptions than light viewers. A significant interaction effect indicated that among low viewers the perception of male stereotypes steadily declines with increasing age; among heavy viewers, stereotypic responses to male items are maintained with increasing age. No comparable interaction effect was obtained for perception of female stereotypes. The role of interaction with live models in breaking down stereotypic perceptions of males is discussed.A modified version of this paper was presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Denver, April 1975.     

Who Wants to Marry a Millionaire? Reality Dating Television Programs, Attitudes Toward Sex, and Sexual Behaviors

Past research has revealed associations between television viewing and sexual attitudes and behaviors. We examined a burgeoning new television genre, reality dating programs (RDPs). Undergraduate students (ages 18–24) reported their overall television viewing, their RDP viewing, and their involvement with RDPs (watching in order to learn and watching in order to be entertained). They also completed measures of attitudes toward sex, dating, and relationships, and answered questions about sexual behavior. Most participants were occasional or frequent viewers of at least one RDP. Men reported using RDPs for learning more than did women; there was no gender difference in use of RDPs for entertainment. Total amount of RDP viewing was positively correlated, for both men and women, with adversarial sexual beliefs, endorsement of a sexual double standard, and the beliefs that men are sex-driven, that appearance is important in dating, and that dating is a game. In all cases, however, these relationships were partially or totally mediated through viewer involvement. Men and women who watched RDPs tended to be less sexually experienced; there were few other correlations with sexual behaviors.     

The relationship of television viewing to physical fitness and obesity

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which light, moderate, and heavy television viewing relates to multiple measures of obesity and physical fitness among 379 high school males. The Body Mass Index and Tucker's Perceived Somatotype Scale were employed to assess obesity; physical fitness was measured by six tests: pushups, pullups, sidestep, long jump, situps, and jog-walk. Results showed that light television viewers scored significantly better than heavy viewers on a composite fitness index and on pushups, pullups, sidestep, situps, and jog-walk considered individually. Similarly, light viewers performed better than moderate viewers on the composite fitness measure and on pushups, pullups, and jog-walk. Light viewers displayed a strong tendency toward better fitness than moderate viewers on the long jump, situps, and sidestep tests, although statistical significance was not attained. Light viewers were not significantly less obese than moderate or heavy viewers. Statistical control of the demographic variables, applied simultaneously, had little influence on the associations found in this study. The findings indicate that for purposes of good physical fitness, television viewing should be limited to one hour or less per day.     

Skin Tone,Crime News,and Social Reality Judgments: Priming the Stereotype of the Dark and Dangerous Black Criminal1

An experiment examined the extent to which viewers’ emotional discomfort with a crime story and perceptions and memorability of a perpetrator and victim could be influenced by the race and skin tone of the perpetrator portrayed in a newscast. Participants were exposed either to a White, light–skinned Black, medium–skinned Black, or dark–skinned Black perpetrator. In addition, participants provided self–reports of their news viewing habits. Results revealed that heavy television news viewers were more likely than light viewers to feel emotional discomfort after being exposed to the dark–skinned Black perpetrator. Heavy news viewers also had favorable perceptions of the victim when the perpetrator was Black, regardless of skin tone. Results also indicated that all participants, regardless of prior news exposure, found the perpetrator more memorable when the perpetrator was a dark–skinned Black male. The methodological and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Relationship of Television Viewing with Attitude Strength and Extremity: Implications for the Cultivation Effect

The relationship of television viewing level with attitude strength and attitude extremity was investigated. Attitude accessibility was used as an indicator of attitude strength and was operationalized as the response latencies associated with the attitude judgments. Fifty-one students who were either very heavy soap opera viewers (> 4 hrs. per week) or very light soap opera viewers (< 1 hr. per week) provided attitude judgments pertaining to marital problems, owning expensive products, and distrust of people. Regression analyses indicated that heavy viewers showed significantly more distrust and a greater likelihood that they would experience marital problems than did light viewers, consistent with a cultivation effect (Gerbner & Gross, 1976). Over and above the effects of attitude extremity, heavy viewers also exhibited stronger attitudes than light viewers, as evidenced by significantly shorter latencies for all three attitude measures. Both the effects of attitude strength and extremity held in the presence of multiple statistical controls. These results suggest that television may serve to bolster and reinforce attitudes consistent with the television message.     

Neural Network Simulations Support Heuristic Processing Model of Cultivation Effects

Many studies have shown that heavy TV viewers make social reality judgments more in line with televised reality. Shrum's (2001) heuristic model of cultivation effects predicted and found that biases in first-order cultivation judgments resemble heuristic processing. Systematic processing eliminated the effect. This study presents a series of computational simulations to examine whether a simple feed-forward neural network model exhibits learning behavior in accordance with Shrum's model. The data from the model are tested in contrast to data from human participants. Results closely fit human data. Simulations show that increased television exposure increases construct accessibility; television exemplars are not discounted when exhibiting the cultivation effect; and systematic processing reduces or eliminates the cultivation effect.     

Effects of documentary and fictional television formats on children's acquisition of schemata for unfamiliar occupations

Children's acquisition of real-world role schemata from factual and fictional television was tested experimentally in two studies. In study 1, 144 second- and fifth-graders saw a drama and a documentary about a caterer or a film director. In study 2, 125 fifth-graders saw the caterer tapes under conditions of high or low attentional involvement. Role schemata about real caterers or directors were measured by free response, frequency ratings, and multiple choice questions. Children acquired schemata about real occupations from bath documentary and fictional programs. On some measures, their schemata were influenced more by documentary than by fiction, but that difference faded slightly after a month. Level of involvement did not reduce the difference between real and fictional videos. Children learn social role schemata from both fictional and factual television, but they acquire more schema information from real than from fictional TV, at least when fiction is signaled by obvious cues (e.g., comedy) or when it is not percieved as socially realistic.     

Psychological Processes in Perceiving Reality

Little attention has been paid to the mental processes and the story elements that influence perceived reality judgments of media stories. People often lack the motivation or ability to be thoughtful about perceived reality judgments. This is particularly true when the stimulus controls the pace of the story (e.g., television). It is possible that people use the typical and atypical elements of a story as a heuristic for making simple judgments about perceived reality of media narratives. In 2 studies, the careful manipulation of atypical and typical information in a soap opera and a news story predicted about half the variance in perceived reality. As the typicality of the stories increased, so did the participants' ratings of the perceived reality of the stories. In a 3rd study, while viewing entertainment television shows, participants used dials to continuously rate the selected programs for perceived reality, typicality, interest, and liking. Results indicate that viewers can make moment-to-moment reality judgments, and these judgments are strongly related to typicality. Interest-liking was related to typicality and perceived reality for drama. For comedy, however, situations with low reality produced greater interest and liking. Typicality appears to be a key psychological characteristic of media stories.     

Television's role regarding alcohol use among teenagers

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which adolescents classified as light, moderate, or heavy television viewers differ regarding alcohol use. The extent to which demographic variables mediate the television-alcohol association also was investigated. A total of 394 high school males completed a written questionnaire to assess television and drinking practices. As hypothesized, heavy viewers consumed alcohol significantly more often than did light and moderate viewers, especially the former, particularly when demographic variables were controlled simultaneously. Television as a powerful and pervasive influence on youth, containing many undesirable health messages, is discussed.     

Young children's television viewing and the quality of their interactions with parents: A prospective community study

Television is one of the most commonly viewed forms of media by children throughout the world. Excessive television viewing can influence the quality of children's relationships and interactions with their parents. We examined the emotional availability (EA ) of children toward their parents by assessing child responsiveness and child involvement , using a cross‐sectional and longitudinal design. We employed a large and representative community sample of Norwegian 4‐year‐olds (n = 995) who were followed up at 6 years old (n = 795). The results illustrate that, when viewing excessive amounts of television, children are less likely to be involved with their parents in ordinary toy‐play. We argue in favor of the displacement hypothesis, stating that time‐demanding technologies are negatively related to the quality of parent–child relationships because spending more time watching television will leave less time for developing nurturing social relationships.