Longitudinal investigation of reciprocal relationship between stress reactions and hardiness

Although many studies have examined hardiness as a protective factor against stress reactions, to the authors' knowledge no studies have yet examined the impact of stress reactions on hardiness. However, there is theoretical support for this notion. In this longitudinal study of 1,571 Marine recruits who participated in a highly stressful training program, the authors applied regression-based cross-lagged analyses to examine associations between stress reactions and hardiness over time for both men and women, and they investigated social support as a moderator of these relationships. Men who were hardier at Time 1 (T1) reported lower stress reactions at Time 2 (T2), and men who experienced more stress reactions at T1 were less hardy at T2. Although the negative impact of stress reactions on hardiness was strongest when social support was low for both genders, stress reactions predicted enhanced hardiness when social support was high for women only.     

The Relationship of Hardiness, Gender, and Stress to Health Outcomes in Adolescents

The present study examined the relationship between the hardiness components of commitment, control, and challenge, and the experience of physical and psychological symptoms in a sample of 150 (75 male, 75 female) adolescents. A measure of psychosocial stress was included to permit an examination of whether the hardiness components interact with stress in predicting health outcomes. Analyses revealed main effects of stress, gender, and the hardiness components of commitment and control for several of the health measures. More important was the finding of a consistent interaction of stress, gender, and hardiness for several of the health measures. Whereas low-stress males experienced few physical and psychological symptoms regardless of their levels of commitment and control, high-stress males experienced more problems when they were low rather than high in either commitment or control. The hardiness components did not interact with stress in the prediction of health outcomes among females.     

Psychological Hardiness Predicts Success in a Norwegian Armed Forces Border Patrol Selection Course

The present study investigates the effects of psychological hardiness and successful completion of a rigorous 250‐km ski march over 9 days in Arctic winter conditions. This ski march is the final portion of a selection program for border rangers in the Norwegian Armed Forces. Study participants were N = 178 soldiers with a mean age of 19.9 years (range 18–23). Hierarchical regression results showed that successful completion of the ski march was predicted by total hardiness scores, after controlling for nutrition factors, physical fitness and sensation seeking. A second hierarchical regression found that the commitment facet of hardiness was the most significant predictor of ski march success, again controlling for nutrition, physical fitness and sensation seeking. Analyses of daily participant surveys showed that the high commitment group reported the highest levels of positive daily coping, and also evaluated their performance more positively. This group also showed increasingly positive self‐evaluations as the exercise went on. Together, these results indicate that hardiness commitment is a key factor influencing performance in a rigorous and stressful endurance task requiring sustained effort, perhaps by enhancing active coping skills and self‐efficacy beliefs.     

The Role of Hardiness and Grit in Predicting Performance and Retention of USMA Cadets

We examined the relative effectiveness of hardiness and grit as predictors of performance and retention among first year cadets at the USMA. Based on past research and theory, we expected that both hardiness and grit would predict unique variance in performance and retention even after controlling for past performance as measured by the Whole Candidate Score. Results of regression analyses revealed that hardiness and grit predicted unique variance in first year retention, but only hardiness predicted first year performance at USMA. These findings suggest that hardiness assessment and training may prove valuable in enhancing performance and retention within military training environments.     

Personality and mental health: an investigation of South African police trainees

The relationship between personality and mental health was investigated in one cohort of police trainees at a South African police academy (1145 police recruits; 648 men, 497 women). Male trainees reported less somatisation, depression, anxiety, and phobic anxiety symptoms and lower harm avoidance as well as higher persistence than female trainees. A cluster analysis based on the personality scores was used to identify three clusters with personality profiles characterized as Vulnerable, Healthy, and Intermediate profiles. Sociodemographic variables and temperament and character domain scores contributed separately and differentially to the explanation of variance in mental health symptom scores. Selection tools should be developed to identify vulnerable individuals in terms of personality characteristics during selection and prior to training, to prevent later problems with stress reactions. Additional training modules focusing on coping skills could possibly reduce vulnerability to stress in some trainees.     

Profiles of Resilience and Psychosocial Outcomes among Young Black Gay and Bisexual Men

Young Black gay/bisexual men (YBGBM) are affected by contextual stressors—namely syndemic conditions and minority stress—that threaten their health and well‐being. Resilience is a process through which YBGBM achieve positive psychosocial outcomes in the face of adverse conditions. Self‐efficacy, hardiness and adaptive coping, and social support may be important resilience factors for YBGBM. This study explores different profiles of these resilience factors in 228 YBGBM in New York City and compares profiles on psychological distress, mental health, and other psychosocial factors. Four profiles of resilience were identified: (a) Low self‐efficacy and hardiness/adaptive coping (23.5%); (b) Low peer and parental support (21.2%); (c) High peer support, low father support (34.5%); and (d) High father and mother support, self‐efficacy, and hardiness/adaptive coping (20.8%). YBGBM in profile 1 scored markedly higher on distress (d = .74) and lower on mental health functioning (d = .93) compared to men in the other profiles. Results suggest that self‐efficacy and hardiness/adaptive coping may play a more important role in protecting YBGBM from risks compared to social support and should be targeted in interventions. The findings show that resilience is a multidimensional construct and support the notion that there are different patterns of resilience among YBGBM.     

On the Stability of Psychological Hardiness: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study

More than 30 years of research has established psychological hardiness as an important individual resiliency resource. One important question still remaining is whether psychological hardiness can be trained. The present study explored this question longitudinally within the context of a 3-year military academy training program. Cadets from 3 different Norwegian military academies (N = 293) completed hardiness questionnaires during the first week of their training, and then again at the end of each year, resulting in a total of 4 waves of data. Using hierarchical linear modeling, no statistically significant effect of time on hardiness scores was found. The nonsignificant growth parameter was examined further using Bayesian statistics as an indicator of the relative evidence for the null hypothesis of no change over time versus the alternative hypothesis of change. The resulting Bayes factor provided substantial support in our data for the null hypothesis of no hardiness development during the 3-year officer training programs.     

The Association Between Church Attendance and Psychological Health in Northern Ireland: A National Representative Survey Among Adults Allowing for Sex Differences and Denominational Difference

This study extends previous research concerning the association between religion and psychological health in six ways: (1) by focusing clearly on religious attendance (church attendance); (2) by employing a robust measure of psychological distress (GHQ-12); (3) by studying a highly religious culture (Northern Ireland); (4) by taking sex differences into account (male or female); (5) by taking denominational differences into account (Catholic or Protestant); (6) and by obtaining a national representative sample (N = 4,281 adults aged 16 and above). Results from a 2 (sex) by 2 (denomination) ANCOVA demonstrated that Catholics recorded significantly lower levels of psychological health compared to Protestants, and that females showed significantly lower levels of psychological health compared to males. In addition, females reported higher frequency of religious service attendance than males, and Catholics reported higher attendance rates than Protestants. A significant positive association was found between frequency of religious attendance and GHQ-12 scores, and this association was moderated by sex and denomination. In conclusion, the results suggest that there may be sex and denominational differences in further understanding the relationship between frequency of religious attendance and psychological health.     

Positive Psychological Functioning and the Biology of Health

Most research considers both psychological and physical health with a disease perspective by focusing on poor psychological functioning or disease outcomes. However, identifying attributes that support adaptive functioning may inform approaches to achieving health beyond what we learn from studying risk factors that accelerate deterioration. Recent evidence suggests that positive psychological functioning contributes to attaining optimal physical health. We evaluate the current state of knowledge on the relationship between positive psychological functioning and physical health, defining health beyond solely the absence of disease. We further consider when positive psychological functioning begins to exert effects on health, whether it has direct effects on biological processes or serves primarily to buffer the effects of stress, and whether it is associated with health outcomes and biological processes beyond those that reflect the absence of deterioration and disease. We propose some key directions for future research including the assessment of positive psychological functioning, positive biological functioning, and optimal health, the value of multi‐system measures, and the potential of “omics” to provide novel insights into biological mechanisms underlying associations between positive psychological functioning and physical health.     

Hardy personality: a potential link with organizational citizenship behavior

Hardiness is a personality construct which is assumed to protect the individual from stress-induced illness. Although widely accepted, hardiness has shown only modest relations with the development of illness. Examining the components of hardiness indicates apparent consistency with organizational citizenship behaviors such as obedience, participation, and loyalty. This study investigated the potential relations between hardiness and organizational citizenship behavior, using Kobasa's Personal Views Survey, and Van Dyne, Graham, and Diensch's citizenship measure. Subjects were 129 unionized employees whose mean age was 37 yr.; 58% were men. Correlations and regressions indicated that scores for total hardiness and its components of commitment and control were linked to citizenship behaviors. Differential relationhips were identified between hardiness and citizenship behavior for individuals with high versus low scores on hardy personality. Hardiness appears to have a positive association with organizational effectiveness through its link to citizenship behavior and consequently may have more implications for organizational behavior than for health.     

Psychological Hardiness Predicts Success in US Army Special Forces Candidates

Military ‘Special Forces’ represent a high‐reliability occupation, where stress levels are often intense and failure can be costly. Selection for such jobs should pay careful attention to psychological factors associated with resiliency under stress. In the present study, US Army Special Forces candidates (N=1138) were assessed for psychological hardiness using a short form of the Dispositional Resilience Scale, and these scores were then applied to predict successful completion of the course. Independent sample t‐tests and logistic regression analyses confirmed that Special Forces course graduates are significantly higher in psychological hardiness, as compared to non‐graduates. Psychological hardiness appears to be an important individual characteristic associated with stress tolerance and successful performance in highly demanding occupations.     

Appraisal of life change, depression, and illness in hardy and nonhardy women

A survey study of adult women was conducted to examine whether psychological hardiness buffers people against stressful life change through the appraisal and interpretation of life experiences. Hardy and nonhardy participants reported life events for the previous year, physical illness for the previous 6 months, and current levels of depression and rated each reported event in terms of its desirability. Results indicate that, although hardiness is not associated with the likelihood of reporting any specific life event, nonhardy subjects appraise a significantly higher proportion of their life experiences as undesirable than do hardy subjects and report that each negative event requires greater adjustment. Discussion focuses on nonhardiness as a correlate of the trait of negative affectivity rather than hardiness as a reflection of special resiliency to stress.     

Expressive writing promotes self‐reported physical,social and psychological health among Chinese undergraduates

The present study examines the efficacy of expressive writing among Chinese undergraduates. The sample comprised of 74 undergraduates enrolled in a 9‐week intervention (35 in experimental class vs. 39 in control class). The writing exercises were well‐embedded in an elective course for the two classes. The 46‐item simplified Chinese Self‐Rated Health Measurement Scale, which assesses psychological, physical and social health, was adopted to measure the outcome of this study. Baseline (second week) and post‐test (ninth week) scores were obtained during the classes. After the intervention on the eighth week, the self‐reported psychological, social and physical health of the experimental class improved. Psychological health obtained the maximum degree of improvement, followed by social and physical health. Furthermore, female participants gained more psychological improvement than males. These results demonstrated that the expressive writing approach could improve the physical, social and psychological health of Chinese undergraduates, and the method can be applied in university psychological consulting settings in Mainland China.     

Alteration of mood state after a single bout of noncompetitive and competitive exercise programs.

This study evaluated the effects of three popular physical activities on the psychological well-being of university students. 44 students in three physical activity classes enrolled in the Fitness for Life Program at Montana State University which included circuit training, weight training, and racquetball were administered the Profile of Mood States scale 5 min. before and 5 min. after one bout of physical activity. Two of the three activities appeared to be associated positively with scores on certain subscales. The results supported positive psychological well-being of students after physical activity. Implications for research are presented.     

The combined influence of hardiness and cohesion on mental health in a military peacekeeping mission: A prospective study

A large number of studies have shown that hardiness and cohesion are associated with mental health in a military context. However, most of them are presented without controlling for baseline mental health symptoms, which is their most significant source of error. The present study investigates the combined effect of hardiness and cohesion in a prospective design, controlling for baseline levels of symptoms among Norwegian personnel serving in a peacekeeping operation in Kosovo. Multivariate regression analyses were performed in which self‐reported mental health complaints were regressed on our explanatory variables. Our findings suggest that both cohesion and hardiness contributed to increased stress resiliency, as measured by a lower level of reported mental health complaints. Our baseline measure of mental health accounted for a larger proportion of the variance than our other predictors. A significant interaction between cohesion and hardiness suggested a combined effect, over and above the individual contributions of the predictors. For individuals who scored high on hardiness, cohesion levels did not influence levels of mental health complaints. Individuals who scored low on hardiness, on the other hand, reported lower levels of mental health complaints when cohesion levels were high.     

Passion,grit and mindset of Iranian wrestlers: A socio-psychological approach

The study presents a socio-psychological analysis of the conventional psychological concept of passion, grit and mindset among Iranian elite wrestlers, along with exploring the associations of the aforementioned variables. We conducted a cross-sectional, correlational questionnaire survey among 124 international and national Iranian top male wrestlers and recruited 106 male and female Iranian university students as a control group to provide more rationale of the variables within the context. Passion Scale, Grit-S Scale and Theories of Intelligence Scale (TIS) were used to measure the variables. The wrestlers scored high on the passion, grit and growth mindset scales, higher than the controls. Further analysis indicated a positive association between passion, grit and growth mindset on wrestlers as a whole and the subgroups. There were, however, no differences in terms of the level of competency and achievement within the groups of wrestlers, which counters former findings. This research contributes valuable insights into how passion, grit and growth mindset, considering the interplay between individual agency and an apt social context, sustain athletes’ desire for tough training; motivate them to overcome a series of setbacks and challenging situations in order to meet further achievements in such a competitive sport. The research further provides insight into a distinctive sport culture and proposes how the socio-cultural context of athletes impacts their mentality and achievement.     

Psychological hardiness predicts cardiovascular health

Many, but not all people experience diminished health, performance and well-being as a function of exposure to stress. However, the underlying neurophysiological processes which characterize hardy or resilient people are not well understood. This study examines psychological hardiness and several indicators of cardiovascular health, including body mass index (BMI) and blood cholesterol markers in a sample of 338 middle-aged adults enrolled in a national security education program. Hierarchical regression analyses reveal that after controlling for the influence of age and sex, high hardiness is related to higher HDL – high density lipoprotein and less body fat (BMI). Lower hardiness is associated with greater total cholesterol to HDL ratio, a cardiovascular disease risk factor. These results suggest that psychological hardiness confers resilience in part through an influence on cholesterol production and metabolism.     

The Relationship Between Psychological Health and Attitude Toward Christianity Among Pupils Aged 11 to 15 Years in England

Advocates of the secularization thesis describe radical decline in the significance of the Christian tradition among young people in England. In this context, a sample of 5,808 pupils age 11 to 15 years provided data about their religious identity and practice and completed the short-form Revised Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (as a measure of psychological health) and the Francis Scale of Attitude toward Christianity (as a measure of their affective commitment to the Christian tradition). The data showed that half of the pupils retained some connection with the Christian tradition and that a positive attitude toward Christianity was associated both with lower psychoticism scores and with higher neuroticism scores. There is evidence, therefore, to link a positive view of Christianity with some indicators of better psychological health (lower psychoticism) and with some indicators of poorer psychological health (higher neuroticism).     

Personality and social resources in stress resistance

This study examined personality, social assets, and perceived social support as moderators of the effects of stressful life events on illness onset. In a group of 170 middle and upper level executives, personality hardiness and stressful life events consistently influenced illness scores, the former serving to lower symptomatology, the latter to increase it. Perceived boss support had its predicted positive effect. Executives under high stress who perceived support from their supervisors had lower illness scores than those without support. Perceived family support, on the other hand, showed a negative effect on health when reported by those low in hardiness. Finally, social assets made no significant impact on health status. These results underscore the value of differentiating between kinds of social resources, and of monitoring the effects of two or more stress-resistance resources in a single study.