Leg Perception of Object Heaviness

ABSTRACT

Perceived heaviness is a function of both the muscle activity used to wield an object and the resulting movement. Wielding reveals invariant properties of the effector-object system, such as rotational inertia. Recent research has proposed a psychophysiological mechanism for perceiving the heaviness of a handheld object through dynamic touch that captures how arm muscle activity and angular movement combined reveal this invariance (Waddell, Fine, Likens, Amazeen & Amazeen, 2016 Waddell, M. L., Fine, J. M., Likens, A. D., Amazeen, E. L., & Amazeen, P. G. (2016). Perceived heaviness in the context of Newton's Second Law: Combined effects of muscle activity and lifting kinematics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42, 363–374.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The current study extends this hypothesis by investigating the dynamics of heaviness perception with the leg. Participants lifted objects of varying mass with knee extension lifts while reporting perceived heaviness. During each lift, the electromyogram (EMG) was recorded from the quadriceps, and peak angular acceleration was recorded about the knee. The resulting psychophysiological function revealed the hypothesized ratio of muscle activity to movement, similar to that found in Waddell et al. (2016) Waddell, M. L., Fine, J. M., Likens, A. D., Amazeen, E. L., & Amazeen, P. G. (2016). Perceived heaviness in the context of Newton's Second Law: Combined effects of muscle activity and lifting kinematics. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 42, 363–374.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. This suggests that the dynamics for heaviness perception in the leg is similar to that shown in the arm in previous work.     

Commentary Research on gene–environment interdependence: Honing the tools and examining the angles

The insightful overview by Sir Michael Rutter (this issue) on gene–environment interdependence comes about 10 years after the breakthrough Science publications on gene–environment interactions (G×E) involving the MAOA and 5-HTT genes by Caspi et al. (2002 Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J.Craig, I. W. 2002. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science, 297: 851–854. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2003 Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W.Harrington, H. 2003. Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301: 386–389. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Since then, a field of research has burgeoned that has produced replications as well as intriguing new evidence of gene–environment interdependence. At the same time, however, the field has witnessed a growing scepticism about the relevance of studying gene–environment interactions and has seen replication failures (see Duncan & Keller, 2011 Duncan, L. E. and Keller, M. C. 2011. A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168: 1041–1049. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Risch et al., 2009 Risch, N., Herell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K.-Y., Eaves, L.Hoh, J. 2009. Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301: 2462–2471. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Against this backdrop, we comment and elaborate on several of the key issues raised by Rutter, and suggest some directions for future research on G×E. Specifically, we discuss (1) replication issues; (2) the crucial role of experiments in understanding gene–environment interdependence; (3) current unknowns with regard to differential susceptibility; and (4) clinical and practical implications of G×E research.     

Sanctifying Work: Effects on Satisfaction,Commitment, and Intent to Leave

Sanctification involves perceiving objects or events: (a) theistically by viewing them as having spiritual significance, or (b) nontheistically by viewing them as extraordinary and worthy of veneration and respect without any reference to a higher being. Previous research has found positive outcomes associated with sanctification, including increased satisfaction with marriage (Mahoney et al., 1999 Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Jewell, T., Swank, A. B., Scott, E.Emery, E. 1999. Marriage and the spiritual realm: The role of proximal and distal religious constructs in marital functioning. Journal of Family Psychology, 13: 321–338. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), body image (Mahoney, Carels, et al., 2005 Mahoney, A., Carels, R. A., Pargament, K. I., Wachholtz, A., Leeper, L. E.Kaplar, M. 2005. The sanctification of the body and behavioral health patterns of college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 221–238. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) and sexual intercourse (Murray-Swank, Pargament, & Mahoney, 2002 Murray-Swank, N. A., Pargament, K. I. and Mahoney, A. 2002. At the crossroads of sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15: 199–219.  [Google Scholar]) to name a few. This study extends these findings into the world of work by demonstrating that those who sanctify their jobs are more satisfied, more committed to their organization, and at the same time less likely to intend to leave.     

Inter-word eye behaviour during reading is not invariant to character size: Evidence against systematic saccadic range error in reading

The present study re-investigated the effect of character size on eye behaviour during reading, in order to test McConkie, Kerr, Reddix, and Zola's (1988 McConkie, G. W., Kerr, P. W., Reddix, M. D., & Zola, D. (1988). Eye movement control during reading: I. The location of initial eye fixations on words. Vision Research, 28(10), 1107–1118. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(88)90137-X[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) Saccadic Range Error (SRE) hypothesis. This assumes that saccades are biased to move the eyes a constant, optimal distance in the task (i.e., range error), while aiming at the centre of peripherally selected target words. Results showed in contradiction with this hypothesis, (1) that the linear relationship between the eye launch site and the mean landing sites in words is not invariant to character size, and (2) that the optimal launch-site distance to the centre of words varies depending on the spatial extent of the words, and differs from the mean length of saccades in the task. We propose an alternative, Center-of-Gravity hypothesis, which a priori accounts for the launch-site effect and its variations with character size, and suggests that research in reading may benefit from reconsidering the role of character size.     

Learning to listen to trans and gender diverse children: A Response to Zucker (2018) and Steensma and Cohen-Kettenis (2018)

ABSTRACT

The authors answer recent responses by Steensma & Cohen-Kettenis (2018 Steensma, T. D., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2018). A critical commentary on “A critical commentary on follow-up studies and “desistence” theories about transgender and gender non-conforming children”. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1468292[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and Zucker (2018 Zucker, K. (2018). The myth of persistence: Response to AA critical commentary on follow-up studies and “Desistance” theories about transgender and gender non-conforming children. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1468293[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to our critical commentary on “desistance” stereotypes and their underlying research on trans and gender diverse children (Temple Newhook et al., 2018 Temple Newhook, J., Pyne, J., Winters, K., Feder, S., Holmes, C., Tosh, J., … Pickett, S. (2018). A critical commentary on follow-up studies and “desistance” theories about transgender and gender-nonconforming children. International Journal of Transgenderism. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15532739.2018.1456390[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We provide clarification in the following areas: (1) the scope of our paper; (2) our support of longitudinal studies; (3) consequences of harm to trans and gender diverse children; (4) clinical practice implications; (5) concerns about validity of research methodology; and (6) the importance of learning to listen to trans and gender diverse children.     

Why we simulate negated information: A dynamic pragmatic account

A well-established finding in the simulation literature is that participants simulate the positive argument of negation soon after reading a negative sentence, prior to simulating a scene consistent with the negated sentence (Kaup, Lüdtke, & Zwaan, 2006 Kaup, B., Lüdtke, J. and Zwaan, R. A. 2006. Processing negated sentences with contradictory predicates: Is a door that is not open mentally closed?. Journal of Pragmatics, 38: 1033–1050. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Kaup, Yaxley, Madden, Zwaan, & Lüdtke, 2007 Kaup, B., Yaxley, R. H., Madden, C. J., Zwaan, R. A. and Lüdtke, J. 2007. Experiential simulations of negated text information. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60: 976–990. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). One interpretation of this finding is that negation requires two steps to process: first represent what is being negated then “reject” that in favour of a representation of a negation-consistent state of affairs (Kaup et al., 2007 Kaup, B., Yaxley, R. H., Madden, C. J., Zwaan, R. A. and Lüdtke, J. 2007. Experiential simulations of negated text information. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60: 976–990. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). In this paper we argue that this finding with negative sentences could be a by-product of the dynamic way that language is interpreted relative to a common ground and not the way that negation is represented. We present a study based on Kaup et al. (2007) Kaup, B., Yaxley, R. H., Madden, C. J., Zwaan, R. A. and Lüdtke, J. 2007. Experiential simulations of negated text information. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60: 976–990. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] that tests the competing accounts. Our results suggest that some negative sentences are not processed in two steps, but provide support for the alternative, dynamic account.     

Perception-Movement Coupling in the Regulation of Step Lengths When Approaching an Obstacle

Experiment 1 showed that the control mechanism based on a perception–movement coupling observed in certain goal-directed movement tasks (De Rugy, Montagne, Buekers, & Laurent, 2000 De Rugy, A., Montagne, G., Buekers, M. J. and Laurent, M. 2000. The study of locomotor pointing in virtual reality: The validation of a test set-up. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 32: 515–520.  [Google Scholar]; Montagne, Cornus, Glize, Quaine, & Laurent, 2000 Montagne, G., Cornus, S., Glize, D., Quaine, F. and Laurent, M. 2000. A perception-action coupling type of control in long-jumping. Journal of Motor Behavior, 32: 37–44. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) can be extended to a stepping across an obstacle task. Regardless of the specificity of tasks, the initiation of regulations is a function of the amount of adjustment. Our participants organized their regulation later than long jumpers. Two additional experiments were conceived to investigate whether this control mechanism could be generalized to goal-directed locomotor displacements, with different constraints. The aim of Experiments 2 and 3 was to address the adaptation of this control mechanism by manipulating the obstacle width and the walking speed in a stepping across task. The results showed that the functioning of this control mechanism could be influenced by the spatiotemporal constraints. Participants' behavior depended on a perception–movement coupling. This study suggests the existence of a generic control mechanism based on a perception–movement coupling, and it emphasizes the adaptation of this type of control mechanism involved in goal-directed displacements.     

What Can Virtual Reality Teach Us About Prosocial Tendencies in Real and Virtual Environments?

As virtual environments (VEs) become increasingly central to people's lives (Terry, 2002 Terry, F. 2002. New Media: An introduction, South Melbourne, , Australia: Oxford University Press.  [Google Scholar]), understanding reactions to VEs may be as important as understanding behavior in the real world (Yee, Bailenson, Urbanek, Chang, & Merget, 2007 Yee, N., Bailenson, J. N., Urbanek, M., Chang, F. and Merget, D. 2007. The unbearable likeness of being digital: The persistence of nonverbal social norms in online virtual environments. The Journal of CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10: 115–121. [Crossref], [PubMed] , [Google Scholar]). Immersive Virtual Environment Technology (IVET), which is now being used in psychological research (Blascovich et al., 2002 Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A., Swinth, K., Hoyt, C. and Bailenson, J. 2002. Immersive virtual environment technology as a research tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 13: 103–125. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), can provide greater experimental control, more precise measurement, ease of replication across participants, and high ecological validity, making it attractive for researchers. It also can create links between researchers who study basic social psychological processes and those who study new media. In two studies we examined people's reactions as they navigated through a virtual world and interacted with virtual people, some of whom needed help. Participants' compassion and tendency to experience personal distress predicted emotional reactions (concern) and proxemic behavior (gaze orientation and degree of interpersonal distance) to a virtual person in need but not to a control person. The results support the use of IVET and proxemic variables to measure compassion unobtrusively and they encourage the use of IVET to advance our understanding of people's behavior in and reactions to virtual worlds and new media.     

Assessing the Effectiveness of Self-Talk Interventions on Endurance Performance

Self-talk in sport has been widely researched with somewhat conflicting results (Van Raalte et al., 1995 Van Raalte, J. L., Brewer, B. Brewer, Lewis, B. Lewis, Linder, D. Linder, Wildman, G. and Kozimor, J. 1995. Cork! The effects of positive and negative self-talk on dart throwing performance.. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18: 508–58.  [Google Scholar]; Perkos et al., 2002 Perkos, S., Theodorakis, Y. and Chroni, S. 2002. Enhancing performance and skill acquisition in novice basketball players with instructional self-talk.. The Sport Psychologist,, 16: 368–383. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of three different self-talk interventions on endurance performance. Participants were nine cyclists who performed a 20-minute cycling ergometer workout two times per week for five weeks. At each workout participants were requested to cycle as far as possible. A multiple-baseline design was utilized, which after varying baseline lengths allowed for the implementation of one out of three self-talk interventions: self-regulated positive self-talk, assisted positive self-talk, and assisted negative self-talk. Results revealed a performance increase in all groups with the greatest increase being found in the assisted positive self-talk condition.     

Is overgeneral autobiographical memory an isolated memory phenomenon in major depression?

The present study explored the relation between overgeneral autobiographical memory (AM) and other aspects of memory functioning in depression. A total of 26 patients with major depressive disorder completed a set of memory tasks measuring AM specificity (AMT; Williams & Broadbent, 1986), working memory, semantic memory, verbal learning, delayed verbal recall, recognition memory, and source memory. Reduced specificity of AM was related to poor working memory (central executive functioning) and poor source memory. The former finding conforms to the idea that the voluntary retrieval of specific autobiographical memories (AMs) involves central executive processes (e.g., Conway & Pleydell-Pearce, 2000 Conway, M. A. and Pleydell-Pearce, C. W. 2000. The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107: 261–288. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The latter finding replicates and extends recent findings suggesting that overgeneral AM is part of a broader memory deficit in retrieving the specific details of the context in which information was acquired (Ramponi, Barnard, & Nimmo-Smith, 2004 Raes , F. , Hermans , D. , Williams , J. M. G. , Demyttenaere , K. , Sabbe , B. , Pieters , G . & Eelen , P. ( 2004 ). Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory: A mediator between rumination and ineffective social problem solving in major depression? Journal of affective disorders , 87 , 331 – 335  [Google Scholar]). Furthermore, in line with Ramponi et al. (2004 Raes , F. , Hermans , D. , Williams , J. M. G. , Demyttenaere , K. , Sabbe , B. , Pieters , G . & Eelen , P. ( 2004 ). Reduced specificity of autobiographical memory: A mediator between rumination and ineffective social problem solving in major depression? Journal of affective disorders , 87 , 331 – 335  [Google Scholar]), rumination was found to be related to both overgeneral AM and poor source memory.     

Does the Brain Differentiate Between Related and Unrelated Cuts When Processing Audiovisual Messages? An ERP Study

The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that during audiovisual message processing (e.g., television or film), cuts in the video track cause an orienting response, which is reflected in the involuntary shift of attention. In classic research by Reeves et al. (1985) Reeves, B., Thorson, E., Rothschild, M. L., McDonald, D., Hirsch, J. and Goldstein, R. 1985. Attention to television: Intrastimulus effects of movement and scene change on alpha variation over time. International Journal of Neuroscience, 27: 241–255. doi:10.3109/00207458509149770[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], changes in the alpha band were noticed in reaction to montage cuts. We propose an investigation of the brain's reaction to montage cuts by means of event-related potentials (ERPs), which are the brain's electrophysiological responses to a stimulus. Well-known indices of orienting response are two ERP components: P3 and slow cortical potential (SCP). Ten participants watched a film consisting of 105 related and 114 unrelated cuts while an electroencephalographic signal was recorded. The hypothesis that unrelated cuts in the video track when watching an audiovisual message cause more pronounced SCP was confirmed. There was no effect of unrelated cuts on P3. The results of this study provide a good starting point for further research on brain reactions to the structural features of an audiovisual message, such as close ups or camera moves.     

A closer look at moral dilemmas: Latent dimensions of morality and the difference between trolley and footbridge dilemmas

Although a distinction between moral-personal and moral-impersonal dilemmas (Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) has been widely accepted as an explanation for a difference between the trolley and footbridge dilemmas (Thomson, 1985 Thomson, J. J. 1985. “The trolley problem”. In Ethics: Problems and principles, Edited by: Fischer, J. M. and Ravizza, M. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.  [Google Scholar]), its psychometric properties remain a mystery. In this study 219 participants completed 62 moral dilemma tasks used in Greene et al. (2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and the correlation structure among the dilemmas was analysed through factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Findings suggest that, first, moral-personal dilemmas are composed of one factor, indicating that the assumption in Greene et al. (2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) was supported. Second, moral-impersonal dilemmas are explained by two factors that reflect procedural and consequential aspects of decision making. Third, the trolley and footbridge dilemmas fall under the same factor category; therefore the difference between the two dilemmas cannot be attributed to emotional involvement. Additionally, the results of the structural equation modelling suggest that they differ in the engagement of rational processing.     

Implicit Trait Policies in Multimedia Situational Judgment Tests for Leadership Skills: Can They Predict Leadership Behavior?

To explain why situational judgment tests are often correlated with personality measures, Motowidlo, Hooper, and Jackson (2006a Motowidlo, S. J., Hooper, A. C. and Jackson, H. L. 2006a. Implicit policies about relations between personality traits and behavioral effectiveness in situational judgment items. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 749–761. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2006b Motowidlo, S. J., Hooper, A. C. and Jackson, H. L. 2006b. “A theoretical basis for situational judgment tests”. In Situational judgment tests: Theory, measurement, and application, Edited by: Weekley, J. A. and Ployhart, R. E. 57–81. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.  [Google Scholar]) developed the implicit trait policy theory. Implicit trait policies are beliefs about causal relationships between personality traits and behavioral effectiveness. Among 180 employees, this field study examined whether a multimedia situational judgment test that was intended to assess leadership skills can capture individual differences in such policies. Furthermore, it was examined whether these implicit trait policies were able to predict leadership behavior. Results confirmed that the situational judgment test was able to capture individual differences in implicit trait policies for Extraversion and Conscientiousness. Furthermore, results showed that implicit trait policies for Extraversion can predict leadership behavior over and above leadership experience and the associated personality trait.     

Introducing a Bayesian Approach to Determining Degree of Fit With Existing Rorschach Norms

This article offers a new methodological approach to investigate the degree of fit between an independent sample and 2 existing sets of norms. Specifically, with a new adaptation of a Bayesian method, we developed a user-friendly procedure to compare the mean values of a given sample to those of 2 different sets of Rorschach norms. To illustrate our technique, we used a small, U.S. community sample of 80 adults and tested whether it resembled more closely the standard Comprehensive System norms (CS 600; Exner, 2003), or a recently introduced, internationally based set of Rorschach norms (Meyer, Erdberg, & Shaffer, 2007 Meyer, G. J., Erdberg, P., & Shaffer, T. W. (2007). Toward international normative reference data for the Comprehensive System. Journal of Personality Assessment, 89(Suppl. 1), S201–S216.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Strengths and limitations of this new statistical technique are discussed.     

Modality effects in memory for basic stimulus attributes: A temporal and nontemporal comparison

Previous research suggests that there are significant differences in the operation of reference memory for stimuli of different modalities, with visual temporal entries appearing to be more durable than auditory entries (Ogden, Wearden, & Jones, 2008 Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2008. The remembrance of times past: Interference in temporal reference memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34: 1524–1544. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2010). Ogden et al. (2008 Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2008. The remembrance of times past: Interference in temporal reference memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34: 1524–1544. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2010 Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2010. Are memories for duration modality specific?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63: 65–80. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) demonstrated that when participants were required to store multiple auditory temporal standards over a period of delay there was significant systematic interference to the representation of the standard characterized by shifts in the location of peak responding. No such performance deterioration was observed when multiple visually presented durations were encoded and maintained. The current article explored whether this apparent modality-based difference in reference memory operation is unique to temporal stimuli or whether similar characteristics are also apparent when nontemporal stimuli are encoded and maintained. The modified temporal generalization method developed in Ogden et al. (2008) Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2008. The remembrance of times past: Interference in temporal reference memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34: 1524–1544. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] was employed; however, standards and comparisons varied by pitch (auditory) and physical line length (visual) rather than duration. Pitch and line length generalization results indicated that increasing memory load led to more variable responding and reduced recognition of the standard; however, there was no systematic shift in the location of peak responding. Comparison of the results of this study with those of Ogden et al. (2008 Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2008. The remembrance of times past: Interference in temporal reference memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 34: 1524–1544. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], 2010 Ogden, R. S., Wearden, J. H. and Jones, L. A. 2010. Are memories for duration modality specific?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63: 65–80. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) suggests that although performance deterioration as a consequence of increases in memory load is common to auditory temporal and nontemporal stimuli and visual nontemporal stimuli, systematic interference is unique to auditory temporal processing.     

Exploring the role of characteristic motion when learning new faces

Previous research has shown that it is easier to recognize familiar faces when shown moving, rather than static, especially when viewing conditions are difficult (Knight & Johnston, 1997 Knight, B. and Johnston, A. 1997. The role of movement in face recognition. Visual Cognition, 4: 265–273. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Lander, Christie, & Bruce, 1999 Bruce, V., Henderson, Z., Greenwood, K., Hancock, P. J. B., Burton, A. M. and Miller, P. 1999. Verification of face identities from images captured on video. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5: 339–360. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). One possible theoretical reason for the moving-face advantage is that we learn “characteristic motion signatures” for familiar faces, associated with the face representation in memory. To examine this idea we investigated the role of motion at test when learning faces from either static images or moving sequences (Experiment 1). Results suggest that there is only an advantage for motion at test when the face is learned moving. In Experiment 2 we map the importance of facial motion as a face becomes increasingly familiar, on a television drama. We demonstrate that the beneficial effect of motion is not dependent on the amount of time the face is viewed. Results from both experiments support the idea of rapidly learned characteristic motion patterns.     

Why are there limits on theory of mind use? Evidence from adults' ability to follow instructions from an ignorant speaker

Keysar et al. (Keysar, Barr, Balin, & Brauner, 2000 Keysar, B., Barr, D. J., Balin, J. A. and Brauner, J. S. 2000. Taking perspective in conversation: The role of mutual knowledge in comprehension. Psychological Sciences, 11: 32–38. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Keysar, Lin, & Barr, 2003 Keysar, B., Lin, S. H. and Barr, D. J. 2003. Limits on theory of mind use in adults. Cognition, 89(1): 25–41. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) report that adults frequently failed to use their conceptual competence for theory of mind (ToM) in an online communication game where they needed to take account of a speaker's perspective. The current research reports 3 experiments investigating the cognitive processes contributing to adults' errors. In Experiments 1 and 2 the frequency of adults' failure to use ToM was unaffected by perspective switching. In Experiment 3 adults made more errors when interpreting instructions according to the speaker's perspective than according to an arbitrary rule. We suggest that adults are efficient at switching perspectives, but that actually using what another person knows to interpret what they say is relatively inefficient, giving rise to egocentric errors during communication.     

Unmasking a shady mirror effect: Recognition of normal versus obscured faces

Hockley, Hemsworth, and Consoli (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] found that following the study of normal faces, a recognition test of normal faces versus faces wearing sunglasses produced a mirror effect: The sunglasses manipulation decreased hit rates and increased false-alarm rates. The stimuli used by Hockley et al. (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] consisted of separate poses of models wearing or not wearing sunglasses. In the current experiments, we separately manipulated same versus different depictions of individual faces and whether or not the faces were partially obscured. The results of a simulation and four experiments suggest that the test-based, mirror effect observed by Hockley et al. (1999) Hockley, W. E., Hemsworth, D. E. and Consoli, A. 1999. Shades of the mirror effect: Recognition of faces with and without sunglasses. Memory & Cognition, 27: 128–138. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] is actually two separable effects.