Two Contrasting Explanations of Involvement Violations:

Among the theories that address the impact of variations in immediacy behaviors during ongoing interactions are expectancy violations (EV) and discrepancy arousal (DA) theories. This study of the effects of violations of expectations on arousal, reciprocity, and compensation in the medical practitioner-patient relationship contrasts EV predictions with DA predictions. EV theory predicts that given a communicator with high reward valence, high and very high involvement (including touch and close proximity) should be met with reciprocation (increased involvement), and low and very low involvement should be met with compensation (increased involvement). DA theory predicts compensating very high involvement with decreased involvement, reciprocating high involvement with increased involvement, compensating low involvement with increased involvement, and reciprocating very low involvement, with decreased involvement. Results supported neither theory as all involvement changes were met with reciprocity. Additionally, although all violations/discrepancies were followed by changes in arousal, size of arousal change was not monotonically related to size of involvement change, as predicted by DA theory. Finally, although positive versus negative emotional experiences were not related to physiological indicators of arousal change, size of involvement change was directly related to the experience of positive and negative emotions. Thus, it appears that involvement change size directly predicts emotional experience and is not mediated by arousal change.     

Comparing the Effects of Unknown-Known Ratios on Word Reading Learning Versus Learning Rates

An extension of G. L. Cates et al. (2003) investigation was conducted to determine if students’ cumulative learning rates would be superior for words read under a traditional drill and practice condition (as they were for spelling in the previous study) than under interspersal conditions of varying ratios of unknown to known words. Participants consisted of three intermediate grade students who were delayed readers. They received a less challenging ratio of unknown to known word (High-P sequencing) interspersal procedure, a more challenging ratio of unknown to known word interspersal training procedure, and a traditional drill and practice procedure in an alternating fashion across several tutoring sessions. Cumulative words read with mastery and cumulative rates of words read with mastery were measured across sessions for each participant under each instructional condition. Findings were consistent with the Cates et al., study revealing that children learn more words per minute of instructional time under the traditional drill and practice condition. These results further support examining instructional efficiency as well as effectiveness when making decisions about selecting and implementing interventions.     

The Enhancing Effect of Overconfidence on Subsequent Learning Performance: Potential Mediation Effects of Dissatisfaction and Effort

Three studies were conducted to investigate whether individuals whose performance on a learning task fell short of their previous overconfident self‐assessment would apply more effort on a subsequent task to resolve their dissatisfaction and thereby achieve better subsequent performance than individuals who made accurate or underconfident self‐assessments. Specifically, Study 1 and Study 2 used overestimation, and Study 3 used overplacement to predict subsequent performance by measuring students' self‐assessments before the first task, their level of dissatisfaction with their actual performance on that task, the effort they applied in learning, and their performance on the subsequent task. Furthermore, Study 3 divided the participants randomly into a false feedback group (the control group) and a real feedback group (the experimental group). The results showed that when controlling for prior performance, participants who were more overconfident tended to express greater dissatisfaction and increase more effort to achieve their desired outcomes when they perceived a gap between their desired performance and their actual performance. Notably, they achieved better subsequent performance, whereas those in the control group who were overconfident neither applied more effort in subsequent learning nor increased their subsequent performance when they received “unbiased feedback.” The implications of these findings for education are discussed. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stereotype Threat Effects on Learning From a Cognitively Demanding Mathematics Lesson

Stereotype threat—a situational context in which individuals are concerned about confirming a negative stereotype—is often shown to impact test performance, with one hypothesized mechanism being that cognitive resources are temporarily co‐opted by intrusive thoughts and worries, leading individuals to underperform despite high content knowledge and ability (see Schmader & Beilock, 2012 ). We test here whether stereotype threat may also impact initial student learning and knowledge formation when experienced prior to instruction. Predominantly African American fifth‐grade students provided either their race or the date before a videotaped, conceptually demanding mathematics lesson. Students who gave their race retained less learning over time, enjoyed the lesson less, reported a diminished desire to learn more, and were less likely to choose to engage in an optional math activity. The detrimental impact was greatest among students with high baseline cognitive resources. While stereotype threat has been well documented to harm test performance, the finding that effects extend to initial learning suggests that stereotype threat's contribution to achievement gaps may be greatly underestimated.     

潜在剖面模型的后续分析——比较分类分析法改进后的偏差

传统的分类分析法虽然是潜在类别模型常用的后续分析方法,但容易导致后续模型中潜在类别与其他变量之间关系的低估。现阶段已发展出多种改进的方法:一步法、基于模型的方法、Bartlett法,改进的分类分析法(包括ML三步法、BCH法、纳入式分类分析法)。本文对这些方法研究进行综述总结,进一步针对心理学研究数据的特点,使用模拟实验探讨适用于潜在剖面模型的分类分析方法,结果发现:传统方法低估潜在类别变量与因变量的关系;ML三步法只有在潜在类别概率分布平均时估计精确;BCH法估计最接近真值,但在低分类区分度、大效果量时出现概率估计为负值的情况;纳入法虽有轻微的高估,但在各种模拟条件下参数估计最为稳健。这些方法受分类区分度、类别概率均匀性以及潜在类别变量与附属变量关系的效果量所影响。     

Equity and Status in Group Collaboration: Learning Through Explanations Depends on Task Characteristics

Although many instructors use collaborative group work as one tool in their repertoire, much research remains to be done on how learning occurs within collaborative learning environments. The present study contributes to this goal by finding that giving explanations during collaborative group work contributes to learning on single-answer group tasks, while task-related participation contributes to learning on variable-answer group tasks. Furthermore, the present study found that European–American students showed higher achievement than African–American students after working on a single-answer group task. Importantly, this race-based difference in achievement was tied to a race-based difference in giving explanations. These results reveal modest, but important support for the hypothesis that variable-answer group tasks provide a more equitable environment for participation than single-answer group tasks.     

Learning From Electronic Texts: Effects of Interactive Overviews for Information Access

This research investigated the effects of structured and unstructured overviews on learning from electronic text. It compared review strategies and text representations developed for traditional continuous text and for electronic text with a structured overview (a hierarchically organized map of the text content) and an unstructured overview (a menu-like content listing). Both overviews produced better memory for text topics and better breadth of recall compared with traditional text. However, when readers lacked specific study goals, the unstructured overview produced a more fragmented knowledge structure. This suggests that minimally structured overviews may be better for specific learning tasks than for gaining familiarity with new topics. The structured overview was easier for readers to recall and use. It also increased the amount of review when readers lacked specific study goals, suggesting that the overview design influences the extent to which readers take advantage of the flexibility provided by electronic text overviews.     

Effects of Positive and Negative Behavioral Feedback on Subsequent Attitude-Related Action

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of positive and negative behavioral feedback on subsequent behavior The results indicate that positive and negative feedback concerning how well individuals have acted on their attitudinal in the past have different effects on subsequent behavior These effects are moderated by individual differences in self-monitoring and in the frequency with which an individual has acted on his or her attitude in the past–variables which can be seen as reflecting differences in the extent to which individuals see themselves as persons who act on their attitudes, either in general or in regard to a specific attitudes domain Implications of the findings for understanding the literature on labeling and on feedback about energy use are discussed, as are the practical implications for using behavioral feedback in an effort to increase attitude-related action     

序列学习中的内隐学习效应

该研究采用较为复杂的包含图形出现的位置规则和顺序规则的实验材料,通过对比被试直接测验和间接测验、内隐学习和外显学习成绩的异同,考察了序列学习中的内隐学习效应,并探讨了规则特点对内隐学习效应的影响。结果表明,在图形位置的序列学习中存在内隐学习效应,内隐学习效应的大小受规则特点的影响。     

Lost in the Rhythm: Effects of Rhythm on Subsequent Interpersonal Coordination

Music is a natural human expression present in all cultures, but the functions it serves are still debated. Previous research indicates that rhythm, an essential feature of music, can enhance coordination of movement and increase social bonding. However, the prolonged effects of rhythm have not yet been investigated. In this study, pairs of participants were exposed to one of three kinds of auditory stimuli (rhythmic, arrhythmic, or white‐noise) and subsequently engaged in five trials of a joint‐action task demanding interpersonal coordination. We show that when compared with the other two stimuli, exposure to the rhythmic beat reduced the practice effect in task performance. Analysis of the behavioral data suggests that this reduction results from more temporally coupled motor movements over successive trials and that shared exposure to rhythm facilitates interpersonal motor coupling, which in this context serves to impede the attainment of necessary dynamic coordination. We propose that rhythm has the potential to enhance interpersonal motor coupling, which might serve as a mechanism behind its facilitation of positive social attitudes.     

Testing Two Theoretical Explanations for the Attraction-Enhancing Effects of Self-Disclosure

The study investigated the differential ability of similarity theory and social exchange theory to predict the effects of self-disclosure in a counseling versus a friendship encounter The participants were 80 undergraduates. A 2 (counseling or friendship) × 2 (positive or negative disclosure) × 2 (relevant or irrelevant disclosure) design was used in which participants rated the videotaped self-disclosure of an individual in an initial dyadic encounter. Unequivocal support was not obtained for either of the theories, but relationship context (counselor vs. peer) influenced the effects of disclosure as measured on counselor-peer and relationship characteristics. A unique feature of the study was the use of the Client Reactions System (CRS) to measure participants' immediate reactions to self-disclosure. The CRS demonstrated both relationship context and valence of disclosure (positive or negative) effects.     

字频和预存表征对相继记忆效应的影响

采用学习-再认研究范式和事件相关电位方法,研究高频字、低频字、假字和非字的相继记忆效应(Dm效应)。18名大学生为被试,根据其测验结果将刺激分成记住和未记住两类,对相应编码过程的ERPs进行分析。结果表明：（1）真字中发现了相继记忆效应,低频字比高频字的相继记忆效应更大,随后正确再认的ERPs 比不能正确再认的ERPs有更大的晚正成份;（2）非字中的相继记忆效应比真字中的效应更大,出现的时间也较早(140ms~200ms),而假字中没有发现显著的相继记忆效应。这些结果表明,字频是影响相继记忆效应的重要因素,高、低频字的相继记忆效应可能存在不同的神经机制,而预存表征不是相继记忆效应出现与否的前提条件     

小学生代数运算规则的样例学习

采用完整或不完整样例,对180名六年级小学生用样例学习两种代数运算规则进行了实验研究。结果显示：多数被试难以学会“平方差”运算规则,只有少数被试学会了“完全平方和”运算规则;反馈对不完整样例的学习效果有促进作用;用不完整样例学习难度不同的规则,其效果不同;在无反馈条件下,完整样例的学习效果都好于不完整样例;在有反馈的情况下,只有删除一步运算步骤样例的学习效果比完整样例的学习效果好     

Biased Assimilation and Attitude Polarization in Response to Learning About Biological Explanations of Homosexuality

According to attribution theory stigmatized behaviors with biological explanations will be perceived more positively than those with psychological explanations, but informing people of the biological explanations of homosexuality has produced mixed results on attitudes. To examine if biased processing could explain previous findings we tested whether biased assimilation (initial attitudes’ effect on perceived persuasiveness) and attitude polarization (initial attitudes’ effect on reported attitude change) affected learning about biological explanations of homosexuality among 210 U.S. undergraduates. General Linear Model analyses showed that (1) individuals with positive attitudes toward homosexuality saw biological explanations as a more persuasive reason to accept homosexuality than those with negative attitudes, and (2) initial attitudes generally led to a strengthening of those attitudes after learning about biological explanations.     

间隔学习与测试效应对学习判断的影响

文章两个实验用于研究间隔学习和测试效应对即刻学习判断及其准确性的影响,结果表明：（1）间隔学习促进记忆保持力,降低即刻学习判断中对困难学习材料的高估并提高学习判断相对准确性。（2）重学前预测试具有增强记忆痕迹的功能,在间隔学习的基础上显著提高了学习判断相对准确性。（3）外部线索应当区分,间隔学习和预测试属于不同的外部线索。     

Effects of Instructor Attractiveness on Learning

Although a considerable body of research has examined the impact of student attractiveness on instructors, little attention has been given to the influence of instructor attractiveness on students. This study tested the hypothesis that persons would perform significantly better on a learning task when they perceived their instructor to be high in physical attractiveness. To test the hypothesis, participants listened to an audio lecture while viewing a photograph of instructor. The photograph depicted either a physically attractive instructor or a less attractive instructor. Following the lecture, participants completed a forced choice recognition task covering material from the lecture. Consistent with the predictions; attractive instructors were associated with more learning. Finally, we replicated previous findings demonstrating the role attractiveness plays in person perception.     

指尖上的学习：触屏学习的作用

触屏学习是通过触屏软硬件设备呈现学习内容,并以手势触屏交互方式获取知识或技能的过程。目前触屏学习基础性研究处于探索阶段,在有效性上,研究发现触屏学习本身可能是有效的,但在相对优势上结果具有较大异质性;在学习后效上,触屏学习有助于提高学习动机,但没有稳定地促进知识保持、知识理解以及二维到三维的学习迁移。针对触屏学习的促进或阻碍作用,以往研究分别从具身认知或认知负荷等理论视角给予解释。学习者、学习材料、学习环境等可能是影响触屏学习效果的重要因素。广泛地将触屏设备应用于学习或课堂场景为时尚早,呼吁未来研究从理论建构、影响因素、特点分析及行为/神经机制角度考察触屏学习的作用。     

Effects of Spiritual Well-Being on Subsequent Happiness,Psychological Well-Being,and Stress

Recently, Gomez and Fisher (Gomez R and Fisher JW (2003) Pers Individ Dif 35: 1975–1991) proposed that four facets of spiritual well-being exist, namely, personal, communal, environmental, and transcendental spiritual well-being. Based on data from three independent studies, the present research effort tested the validity of a German version of (Gomez R and Fisher JW (2003) Pers Individ Dif 35: 1975–1991) of the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire (SWBQ-G). It was found that the SWBQ-G was factorially valid and that each of the four SWBQ-G scales was discriminant to mental, physical, and emotional well-being. Also, it was found that the SWBQ-G predicted levels of subsequent happiness, psychological well-being (positive relationship), and stress (negative relationship). These results add to our knowledge about the validity of the construct of spiritual well-being.