Internal Cue Theory: Calibration and Resolution of Confidence in General Knowledge

A theory is proposed in which beliefs in the form of internal cue validities mediate the processing of ecological cue validities in the assessment of confidence. The conditions necessary for perfect calibration are specified: (a) correspondence between ecological and internal validity, (b) perfect translation of internal validity into a confidence assessment, and (c) consistent utilization of cues. Process errors are then added to these conditions to investigate how calibration is affected by error variance of confidence assessments. To accomplish this, the calibration score (C) is decomposed into three additive parts: D² = bias, i.e., the squared difference between mean confidence and proportion correct; R² = resolution, i.e., the squared difference between the standard deviations of confidence and proportion correct; L = linearity, i.e., how closely the calibration curve follows a linear function. In the equation C = D² + R² + L, R² (resolution) reflects the subject′s ability to discriminate cue validities. Selection of items is a critical factor in studies of confidence. Informal selection with a tendency to avoid easy items results in overconfidence. Internal cue theory predicts both that overconfidence should disappear (in accordance with previous research) and that resolution should improve when item selection is made representative of the natural environment. Both predictions are confirmed by data from published studies on confidence in general knowledge. It is noteworthy that resolution is still poor and accounts for the major portion of miscalibration under representative item selection.     

Comparison among four psychophysical procedures used in lateralization

Psychometrie functions were obtained from two listeners in four psychophysical tasks. The tasks were lateralization procedures in which Os were asked to make discriminations of interaural temporal differences of a 250-Hz tone. The four tasks were: a single-interval yes-no task, a single-interval left-right task, a two-alternative forced-choice task, and a two-interval same-different task. The theory of signal detection provides predictions relating the performances obtained in these four procedures. These predictions could not be verified in this experiment when it was assumed that the Os were listening to changes in lateral position produced by the interaural temporal difference. The data were, however, consistent with the assumption that Os use lateral motion as a cue for detection in two-interval tasks and lateral position as a cue in single-interval tasks.     

The variance of d′ estimates obtained in yes—no and two-interval forced choice procedures

In studies of detection and discrimination, data are often obtained in the form of a 2 × 2 matrix and then converted to an estimate of d′, based on the assumptions that the underlying decision distributions are Gaussian and equal in variance. The statistical properties of the estimate of d′, $\hat d'$ , are well understood for data obtained using the yes—no procedure, but less effort has been devoted to the more commonly used two-interval forced choice (2IFC) procedure. The variance associated with $\hat d'$ is a function of trued′ in both procedures, but for small values of trued′, the variance of $\hat d'$ obtained using the 2IFC procedure is predicted to be less than the variance of $\hat d'$ obtained using yes—no; for large values of trued′, the variance of $\hat d'$ obtained using the 2IFC procedure is predicted to be greater than the variance of $\hat d'$ from yes—no. These results follow from standard assumptions about the relationship between the two procedures. The present paper reviews the statistical properties of $\hat d'$ obtained using the two standard procedures and compares estimates of the variance of $\hat d'$ as a function of trued′ with the variance observed in values of $\hat d'$ obtained with a 2IFC procedure.     

Investigations of the optical spectra and local structure for nickel(II) ions in XF2 (X = Mg,Zn) single crystals

A complete diagonalization energy matrix method (CDM) is proposed for 3d ⁸ ions in orthorhombic site (D _{2 h} ) symmetry. As an application, the optical spectra of XF₂ : Ni²⁺ (X = Mg, Zn) is well explained on the basis of both the CDM and the semi-self-consistent field d-orbital (semi-SCF d-orbital) theory. In addition, by establishing the relationship between the optical spectra and local structure, it has been possible to calculate the crystal structure parameters for XF₂:Ni²⁺ from optical measurements on Ni²⁺ ions. The theoretical results are in good agreement with experimental findings.     

The soft X-ray emission spectra of Zn,Ga and Ge

Abstract

The experimental L_α1,2 and L_β1 X-ray emission spectra of Zn, Ga and Ge are presented. The high-energy satellite structure of the lines is considered. It appears that the intensity of these satellites relative to the main lines is much larger for Zn than for Ga and Ge. This enhancement effect is interpreted as arising mainly from the 2p^?1 _1/2 → 2p^?1 _3/23d^?1 _3/2,5/2 Coster-Kronig transition occurring in metallic Zn, which is absent in the case of Ga and Ge. Furthermore, for all these elements it is suggested that a significant contribution to the high-energy satellites of the L_α1,2; X-ray emission band arises from the 2s^?1 _1/2 → 2p^?1 _3/23d^?1 _3/2,5/2 Coster-Kronig process, whereas in the case of the satellites of the L_β1 X-ray emission spectrum the main cause would be the 2s^?1 _1/2 → 2p^?1 _1/23d^?1 _3/2,5/2transition.     

Feature cues in probability learning: Data base information and judgment

Judgments of probabilistic events are often based partly on some information about past similar events. This study investigates the impact of summarized historical data termed a feature cue on performance in a cue probability learning task. Judges (n = 64) made 150 predictions of a criterion variable (Y_e) from a single cue variable (X). The feature cue variable (Z) provided judges with the “average past criterion” for the cue value on trial i, i.e., the conditional mean . Availability of the feature cue was varied with an AB-BA transfer design. Results demonstrate that the presence of the feature cue greatly imporved prediction achievement and accuracy. Under certain conditions, consistency and cue weighting were also improved by the feature cue aid. Although the feature cue value itself was not used as a prediction, it served as an anchor, around which judgments were dispersed. Implications for decision making with data base information are discussed.     

The Effects of Warnings and Speeding on Scale Scores and Convergent Validity of Conscientiousness

We examined the effects of warnings and speeding on scale scores and convergent validity of a measure of Conscientiousness in a faking context (N = 329). A completely crossed 2 × 2 experimental design was used in which instructions (no warning or a warning) and speeding (with or without a time limit) were manipulated. No statistically significant effects on scale scores or convergent validity were evidenced for speeding. Warning participants did decrease Conscientiousness scores by almost 1 standard deviation (d = .91). Warnings also moderated the relationship between self- and observer-ratings of Conscientiousness such that the relationship between self- and observer-ratings was statistically significant and positive in the warned conditions (r _partial = .29, p < .01, n = 136), but this same relationship was statistically nonsignificant (r _partial = ?.14, p > .05, n = 148) in the unwarned conditions.     

Binary choice, subset choice, random utility, and ranking: A unified perspective using the permutahedron

The d-permutahedron Π_d−1⊂R^d is defined as the convex hull of all d-dimensional permutation vectors, namely, vectors whose components are distinct values of a d-element set of integers [d]≡{1,2,…,d}. By construction, Π_d−1 is a convex polytope with d! vertices, each representing a linear order (ranking) on [d], and has dimension dim(Π_d−1)=d−1. This paper provides a review of some well-known properties of a permutahedron, applies the geometric-combinatoric insights to the investigation of the various popular choice paradigms and models by emphasizing their inter-connections, and presents a few new results along this line.Permutahedron provides a natural representation of ranking probability; in fact it is shown here to be the space of all Borda scores on ranking probabilities (also called “voters profiles” in the social choice literature). The following relations are immediate consequences of this identification. First, as all d! vertices of Π_d−1 are equidistant to its barycenter, Π_d−1 is circumscribed by a sphere S^d−2 in a (d−1)-dimensional space, with each spherical point representing an equivalent class of vectors whose components are defined on an interval scale. This property provides a natural expression of the random utility model of ranking probabilities, including the condition of Block and Marschak. Second, Π_d−1 can be realized as the image of an affine projection from the unit cube of dimension d(d−1)/2. As the latter is the space of all binary choice vectors describing probabilities of pairwise comparisons within d objects, Borda scores can be defined on binary choice probabilities through this projective mapping. The result is the Young's formula, now applicable to any arbitrary binary choice vector. Third, Π_d−1 can be realized as a “monotone path polytope” as induced from the lift-up of the projection of the cube onto the line segment [0,d]⊂R¹. As the 2^d vertices of the d-cube are in one-to-one correspondence to all subsets of [d], a connection between the subset choice paradigm and ranking probability is established. Specifically, it is shown here that, in the case of approval voting (AV) with the standard tally procedure (Amer. Pol. Sci. Rev. 72 (1978) 831), under the assumption that the choice of a subset indicates an approval (with equal probability) of all linear orders consistent with that chosen subset, the Brams-Fishburn score is then equivalent to the Borda score on the induced profile. Requiring this induced profile (ranking probability) to be also consistent with the size-independent model of subset choice (J. Math. Psychol. 40 (1996) 15) defines the “core” of the AV Polytope. Finally, Π_d−1 can be realized as a canonical projection from the so-called Birkhoff polytope, the space of rank-position probabilities arising out of the rank-matching paradigm; thus Borda scores can be defined on rank-position probabilities. To summarize, the many realizations of a permutahedron afford a unified framework for describing and relating various ranking and choice paradigms.     

Effects of a visual frame and of low radial accelerations on the visually perceived eye level

The purpose of this study was to determine how the combined effects of a reference frame and of very low gravito-inertial forces produced by centrifugation affect the visually perceived eye level (VPEL). Twenty subjects were instructed to set a luminous target to the VPEL under various experimental conditions involving two main factors: (1) visual context (frameless, frame centered, frame moved down 50 mm, and frame moved up 50 mm) and (2) gravito-inertial context (motionless, Gi₁=9.81001 m/sec² and Gi₂ = 9.95 m/sec²). The visual context significantly reduced the lowering of VPEL in darkness as caused by radial acceleration; this confirms the prevailing role of vision versus propriosomesthesis. However, under condition Gi₂, there was a significant effect on the VPEL in spite of the presence of the luminous frame; this demonstrates that VPEL processing involves both visual and propriosomesthesic information. Furthermore, the VPEL varied linearly with the vertical shift of the luminous frame for any of the gravito-inertial conditions used in this study, but, under condition Gi₂, the VPEL was shifted downward.     

Effects of emotion regulation strategies on anxiety during job interviews in Chinese college students

Background and objectives: Few studies related to the impact of different emotion regulation strategies on anxiety have used externally and ecologically valid emotion-eliciting stimuli or Eastern populations. The present study compares the effects of reappraisal, suppression, and acceptance on anxiety induced by a simulated job interview in a Chinese sample. Methods: Eighty-two subjects were randomly assigned to one of four instructions: reappraisal, suppression, acceptance, or no-regulation strategies during a simulated job interview. Anxiety was assessed with an observer-based behavior rating scale during the interview and the State Anxiety Inventory before, during, and after the interview. Results: A repeated-measures MANOVA indicated a significantly greater reduction in anxiety in the reappraisal and acceptance groups compared to the control group during the interview (reappraisal: d = 1.42; acceptance: d = 1.30; each p < .001), but not during the recovery stage. The suppression and control group did not differ in any stage. Suppression led to a higher (p_max < .04) anxiety than reappraisal/acceptance in the anticipation (d = 0.65/0.68), interview (d = 0.87/0.79), and recovery stages (d = 0.94/1.03). No significant differences were found between reappraisal and acceptance. Conclusions: In Chinese students reappraisal and acceptance seem to be more effective anxiety regulation strategies than suppression.     

An analysis of visual detection by temporal probability summation

The probability of detection by temporal probability summation (TPS) is derived assuming a non-white Gaussian noise process, characterised by a finite second spectral moment λ₂; the assumption of stationary noise is discussed with respect to neurophysiological findings suggesting multiplicative noise for individual neurons. The usual white-noise assumption is shown to imply inconsistent detection models. d^′-estimates for 2AFC-experiments do not depend on the value of λ₂ and do not differ from those derived from the standard SDT-assumptions, in contrast to d^′-estimates for yes-no-experiments, which depend on the probability of false alarms. Estimates of properties of a visual channel depend on whether detection is by TPS or temporal peak detection (TPD); it is argued that TPD is not a special case of TPS, and that subjects chose a TPS- or a TPD-strategy depending on experimental conditions.     

The contribution of vowel duration,F0 contour,and frication duration as cues to the/juz/-/jus/distinction

A model was quantified to describe the integration of vowel duration, fricative duration, and fundamental frequency (F₀) contour as cues to final position fricatives differing in voicing. The basic assumptions are that perceived vowel duration and perceived frication duration are cues to the identity of final position fricatives and that both F₀ contour and vowel duration influence perceived vowel duration. Binary choice and rating responses to synthetic stimuli varying independently along the three dimensions were collected. The results were consistent with the assumption that F₀ contour operates by modifying perceived vowel duration, which is a direct cue. Unfortunately, the nature of the modification appears to be very similar in form to that which results from the integration of two independent cues in syllable identification. Therefore, the results do not allow a rejection of the idea that the perception of F₀ contour may directly cue the identity of final position fricatives.     

A study of the spin-Hamiltonian parameters for Cr5+ at the rhombically-distorted tetrahedral P5+ site of Ca2PO4Cl crystal using a two-mechanism model

The complete high-order perturbation formulae of spin-Hamiltonian (SH) parameters (g factors g_i and hyperfine structure constants A_i , where i = x, y, z) containing contributions from both the crystal-field (CF) and charge-transfer (CT) mechanisms (the latter mechanism is neglected in the widely-used CF theory) are established for d¹ ions in rhombic tetrahedra. From these formulae, the SH parameters of Cr⁵⁺ ion at the rhombically-distorted tetrahedral P⁵⁺ site of Ca₂PO₄Cl crystal are calculated. The CF and CT energy levels used in the calculation are obtained from the optical spectra of the studied Ca₂PO₄Cl : Cr⁵⁺ crystal. The calculated results showed reasonable agreement with the experimental values. The signs of the hyperfine structure constants A_i and the relative importance of the CT mechanism to SH parameters are acquired from the calculations.     

Electron spin resonance of hydrogenated amorphous silicon-carbon alloy films prepared by magnetron sputtering

Abstract

New electron spin resonance (ESR) lines with g¹ = 2·0017 and g₂ and g₃ = 2·0006 have been found in the ESR spectra of as-deposited a-Si_1–x C_x:H films prepared by magnetron sputtering of silicon in the gas mixtures of methane and argon. Similarities between the observed spectra and those for the E′ centre in glassy SiO₂ are discussed.     

An examination of lower limb asymmetry in ankle isometric force control

While asymmetries have been observed between the dominant and non-dominant legs, it is unclear whether they have different abilities in isometric force control (IFC). The purpose of this study was to compare ankle IFC between the legs. IFC is important for stabilization rather than object manipulation, and people typically use their non-dominant leg for stabilization tasks. Additionally, studies suggested that a limb can better acquire a motor task when the control mechanism of the task is related to what the limb is specialized for. We hypothesized that the non-dominant leg would better (1) control ankle IFC with speed and accuracy, and (2) acquire an ankle IFC skill through direct learning and transfer of learning. Two participant groups practiced an IFC task using either their dominant or non-dominant ankle. In a virtual environment, subjects moved a cursor to hit 24 targets in a maze by adjusting the direction and magnitude of ankle isometric force with speed (measured by the time required to hit all targets or movement time) and accuracy (number of collisions to a maze wall). Both groups demonstrated similar movement time and accuracy between the dominant and non-dominant limbs before practicing the task. After practice, both groups showed improvement in both variables on both the practiced and non-practiced sides (p < .01), but no between-group difference was detected in the degree of improvement on each side. The ability to control and acquire the IFC skill was similar between the legs, which did not support the brain is lateralized for ankle IFC.     

Variation with density of the transport properties of YBaCuO superconductors

Abstract

The dependence of the normal-state resistivity, resistive superconducting transition (T _c, ΔT _c), and of the upper critical-field slope (dH _c2/dT|T=T_c) on density has been investigated for several YBa₂Cu₃O_9-x(x?2.1) samples. The resistivity decreases rapidly with increasing density, whereas T _c and ΔT _c are rather insensitive to a change in density. dH _c2/dT|T_c depends sensitively on the preparation conditions. The implications of these results both for the evaluation of the parameters relevant to the understanding of the nature of superconductivity and for the technological applications of granular superconductors are briefly discussed.     

The temperature dependence of the optical dispersion parameters in Si and Ge

Abstract

In Si and Ge, the optical dispersion parameters (single-oscillator energy E_o , dispersion energy E_d and bond energy gap E_g developed by Wemple and DiDomenico, and Phillips) have been analysed in the temperature range 100-300 K using data obtained by Icenogle et al. E_o and E_g exhibit a very small temperature dependence in both materials. The thermal coefficients of the dispersion energy, dE_d/dT, have opposite signs (Si, –41·9 × 10^?4eVK^?1; Ge, +37·7 × 10^?4eVK^?1).     

Mixed signals: The effect of conflicting reward- and goal-driven biases on selective attention

Attentional selection depends on the interaction between exogenous (stimulus-driven), endogenous (goal-driven), and selection history (experience-driven) factors. While endogenous and exogenous biases have been widely investigated, less is known about their interplay with value-driven attention. The present study investigated the interaction between reward-history and goal-driven biases on perceptual sensitivity (d’) and response time (RT) in a modified cueing paradigm presenting two coloured cues, followed by sinusoidal gratings. Participants responded to the orientation of one of these gratings. In Experiment 1, one cue signalled reward availability but was otherwise task irrelevant. In Experiment 2, the same cue signalled reward, and indicated the target’s most likely location at the opposite side of the display. This design introduced a conflict between reward-driven biases attracting attention and goal-driven biases directing it away. Attentional effects were examined comparing trials in which cue and target appeared at the same versus opposite locations. Two interstimulus interval (ISI) levels were used to probe the time course of attentional effects. Experiment 1 showed performance benefits at the location of the reward-signalling cue and costs at the opposite for both ISIs, indicating value-driven capture. Experiment 2 showed performance benefits only for the long ISI when the target was at the opposite to the reward-associated cue. At the short ISI, only performance costs were observed. These results reveal the time course of these biases, indicating that reward-driven effects influence attention early but can be overcome later by goal-driven control. This suggests that reward-driven biases are integrated as attentional priorities, just as exogenous and endogenous factors.