Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school

The current study investigated associations among cognitive empathy, affective empathy, internalizing problems, and the five steps of the bystander intervention model (notice bullying events, interpret as an event requiring intervention, accept responsibility for intervening, know how to intervene, and act). Participants included 336 fourth and fifth grade students (58.9% boys) at a school in the Midwest region of the United States. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that greater cognitive empathy was related to noticing bullying events, accepting responsibility to intervene, and knowing how to intervene. Affective empathy was significantly related to the actual act of intervention. Further, significant interactions revealed that affective empathy was positively associated with interpreting bullying as an event that required intervention at low and moderate levels of internalizing problems, but not at high levels of internalizing problems. Overall these findings underscore the need to examine the decision to intervene as the culmination of a series of steps as outlined in the bystander intervention model, with each step potentially influenced by a unique set of precursors.     

Bystander Responses to Risk for Rape Perpetrated by a Friend,Acquaintance, or Stranger

This study explored bystander responses to risk for an alcohol-facilitated rape perpetrated by a friend, acquaintance, or stranger. Undergraduates (N = 331) were randomly assigned to read 1 of 3 scenarios in which an apparently sober male friend, acquaintance, or stranger leads an intoxicated woman into a bedroom. Participants completed self-report measures of intent to directly intervene and barriers to intervention. Compared to men, women reported greater intent to help the potential victim and fewer barriers to intervention. Participant gender moderated the effect of the bystander’s relationship with the potential perpetrator on intent to confront and responsibility to intervene. Men reported more confrontation and more responsibility to intervene when perpetrators were identified as either friends or acquaintances than strangers. In contrast, women reported more confrontation when perpetrators were identified as friends than either strangers or acquaintances. Bystander education programs that address specific barriers to intervening with strangers and acquaintances could promote more frequent bystander behavior.     

Bystanders' Reactions to Witnessing Repetitive Abuse Experiences

The Impact of Event Scale—Revised (D. S. Weiss &C. R. Marmar, 1997) was used to obtain self‐reported trauma levels from 587 young adults recalling childhood or adolescence experiences as witnesses to common forms of repetitive abuse defined as bullying. Mean participant scores were in a range suggesting potential need for clinical assessment at the time these events occurred. Multiple regression analysis identified significant predictors of distress levels, with intensity of abuse being the strongest. Additional results and implications of findings are discussed.     

Informal Drunk Driving Intervention: Psychosocial Correlates Among Young Adult Women and Men1

Based on experimental research on helping and survey findings on drunk driving intervention, we selected 28 variables for study that might relate to informal intervention in a drunk driving situation. We tested six hypotheses by categorizing the 28 variables into personal (12), relationship (4), situational (5), and individual response (7) aspects. Bivariate correlations and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed between these 28 predictor variables and intervention for 303 college students (192 females and 111 males). Three personal, one relationship, three situational, and four individual responses in situation variables were correlated significantly with intervention. Four significant predictors emerged in the stepwise logistic regression equation: knowing the driver well; having a conversation that encouraged the respondent to intervene; perceiving the driver as needing help; and the respondent's feeling able to intervene. All hypotheses received at least some confirmation in these results, but noteworthy discrepancies from expectations emphasize the need to appreciate differences between studies of helping behavior in the laboratory and this natural form of helping behavior.     

Social relations and presence of others predict bystander intervention: Evidence from violent incidents captured on CCTV

Are individuals willing to intervene in public violence? Half a century of research on the “bystander effect” suggests that the more bystanders present at an emergency, the less likely each of them is to provide help. However, recent meta-analytical evidence questions whether this effect generalizes to violent emergencies. Besides the number of bystanders present, an alternative line of research suggests that pre-existing social relations between bystanders and conflict participants are important for explaining whether bystanders provide help. The current paper offers a rare comparison of both factors—social relations and the number of bystanders present—as predictors of bystander intervention in real-life violent emergencies. We systematically observed the behavior of 764 bystanders across 81 violent incidents recorded by surveillance cameras in Copenhagen, Denmark. Bystanders were sampled with a case–control design, their behavior was observed and coded, and the probability of intervention was estimated with multilevel regression analyses. The results confirm our predicted association between social relations and intervention. However, rather than the expected reversed bystander effect, we found a classical bystander effect, as bystanders were less likely to intervene with increasing bystander presence. The effect of social relations on intervention was larger in magnitude than the effect of the number of bystanders. We assess these findings in light of recent discussions about the influence of group size and social relations in human helping. Further, we discuss the utility of video data for the assessment of real-life bystander behavior.     

Expressed Emotions and Perceived Credibility of Child Mock Victims Disclosing Physical Abuse

The influence of emotions displayed by child witnesses during disclosure of abuse on judgments of credibility and guilt were examined. Eight mock police interviews with child actors, telling a story of physical abuse with different emotional expressions, were video‐recorded. In a between‐group design, jury eligible lay persons (n = 162) and professional child protective service (CPS) workers (n = 154) rated the credibility of the child witnesses and the probability that the alleged perpetrator was guilty of crime. The emotions displayed by the child witnesses strongly affected judgments of credibility and guilt. The patterns of ratings were closely similar in the two participant samples, but the overall ratings of the CPS workers were higher than those of the lay participants. Judgments of the probability of guilt followed a similar pattern with a correlation of .68 between the two variables. The theoretical and practical implications of the results are briefly discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Maternal depression and its relationship to life stress,perceptions of child behavior problems,parenting behaviors,and child conduct problems

This study examined the relationship of reported maternal depression to prior and current life stressors, and to mother perceptions of child adjustment, parenting behaviors, and child conduct problems. Forty-six depressed mothers and 49 nondepressed mothers and their clinic-referred children (aged 3-8 years) participated. Depressed mothers were more critical than nondepressed mothers, but the behavior of children of depressed and nondepressed mothers showed no significant differences. Depressed mothers were more likely to have experience child abuse, spouse abuse, or more negative life events than nondepressed mothers. Maternal reports of stress related to mother characteristics and to negative life events were the most potent variables discriminating depressed from nondepressed mother families.     

Predicting Bystander Behavior to Prevent Sexual Assault on College Campuses: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Intent

Bystander intervention has been increasingly applied to prevent sexual violence on college campuses. Its underlying theory assumes unidirectional relationships between variables, predicting that bystander behaviors (i.e., actions taken to intervene in sexual violence situations) will be influenced by bystander intentions (BI; i.e., likelihood to intervene in the future), which in turn will be affected by bystander efficacy (BE; i.e., confidence to intervene). One question for theory is whether a reciprocal relationship exists between BI and BE. We used structural equation modeling (SEM) with longitudinal data to test unidirectional and reciprocal causal relations between BI and BE. Participants (n = 1390) were students at a northeastern US university. Four models were examined using SEM: (1) a baseline model with autoregressive paths; (2) a model with autoregressive effects and BI predicting future BE; (3) a model with autoregressive effects and BE predicting future BI; and, (4) a fully cross‐lagged model. Results indicated that reciprocal causality was found to occur between BI and BE. In addition, a final model demonstrated indirect effects of a bystander intervention program on bystander behaviors through both BI and BE at different time points. Implications for theory and practice are described, and directions for future research discussed.     

Pre-trial therapy for child witnesses in cases of sexual abuse: A scoping literature review

Globally, child complainants of sexual abuse are expected to testify in criminal proceedings and in some countries therapy is delayed until after the child testifies as not to contaminate the child’s version of events. We carried out a scoping review of the literature on the provision of pre-trial therapy to child witnesses in cases of sexual abuse, to identity pertinent practice issues. We searched the following data bases: Academic FileOne, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, eBook (EBSCOHost); HeinOnline, OAPEN Library, PscyhARTICLS, PscyhINFO; SocINDEX, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Scopus. We identified white and grey literature for the period spanning 1980 to 2016. Inclusion criteria included studies published in English, experimental studies, literature reviews, and policy documents relating to the provision of pre-trial therapy for child witnesses in criminal cases of sexual abuse. We discovered that an internationally accepted clear definition of pre-trial therapy is needed to ensure a common understanding thereof amongst all role players. A dearth of empirical studies exists and consequently the possible impact of different forms of therapeutic approaches on the child witness’ testimony is yet to be conclusively determined. In the interim, therapists and other role players should be acutely aware of the impact of different forms of therapy on the child witness’s testimony.     

The relation of child sexual abuse and depression in young women: comparisons across four ethnic groups

To investigate the relation of child sexual abuse to depression and whether this relation differed by ethnicity (African Americans, Mexican Americans, Native Americans, and non-Hispanic whites), we surveyed 2,003 women between 18 and 22 years of age about family histories, sexual abuse, and depression. Reported rates of child sexual abuse were similar across ethnic groups; approximately one-third of each group reported some form of sexual abuse and about one-fifth of each ethnic group reported experiencing rape. After controlling for background characteristics identified as risk factors for both child sexual abuse and depression, severity of child sexual abuse was significantly related to depressive symptoms only for non-Hispanic whites and Mexican Americans. Child sexual abuse variables accounted for more variance in depression than background variables only for Mexican American women. Child physical abuse was the strongest predictor of adult depression and the only significant predictor for each ethnic group.     

A longitudinal study of adolescents' recollections of family violence

This investigation focuses on adolescents' recollections of childhood exposure to aversive events and the extent to which such recollections are related to variables from the traditional memory literature. Participants (n=153) were questioned about mother‐directed abuse, child‐directed abuse and punishment, and nonabusive events documented 6 years earlier. The teens forgot many details of family aggression, particularly when their mothers were the victims. Thirty‐four per cent of those exposed to spousal violence failed to remember or report it, and 20% forgot or failed to report child abuse or punishment. Few participants exposed to escalated violence remembered and reported it, although almost all reported less severe aggression. Remembering was positively related to other measures of nontraumatic autobiographical memory, age, negative attitudes about the abuser, and recent exposure to family aggression. The results suggest that recollections of childhood abuse can be explained in part by variables that apply to a wide range of memory tasks. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult Eyewitness Memory for Single Versus Repeated Traumatic Events

Reports from individuals who have witnessed multiple, similar emotional events may differ from reports from witnesses of only a single event. To test this, we had participants (N = 65) view a video of a road traffic accident. Half of the participants saw two additional (similar) aversive films. Afterwards, participants filled out the Self‐Administered Interview on the target film twice with an interval of 1 week. Participants who saw multiple similar films were less accurate in recalling details from the target film than participants in the control condition. On their second report, participants were less complete but more accurate compared with their first report. These results indicate that adults who have witnessed multiple repeated events may appear less reliable in their reports than adults who have witnessed a single event. These findings are relevant when evaluating eyewitness evidence and call for new approaches to questioning witnesses about repeated events.Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Replications and Limitations of a Two-Factor Model of Child Witness Credibility

Two experiments are reported that test the idea that jurors perceive child witnesses in terms of a 2-factor model of credibility with the factors defined as cognitive ability and honesty (Leippe & Romanczyk, 1987; Ross, Millers, & Moran, 1989). In the first experiment, 300 mock jurors watched a realistic videotaped recreation of a sexual abuse trial and rated the credibility of the child witness. Mock jurors perceived the child witness in terms of 2 factors: cognitive ability and honesty. Only honesty predicted verdict. These findings were replicated in Experiment 2 ( N = 300) when only the child's testimony was presented and the perceptions of the child witness were not contaminated by the testimony of the other witnesses in the trial.     

Wailing babies in her wake

The scientific study of child witnesses has influenced both developmental science and jurisprudence concerning children. Focusing on the author's own studies, 4 categories of research are briefly reviewed: (a) children's eyewitness memory and suggestibility; (b) memory for traumatic events in childhood; (c) disclosure of child sexual abuse; and (d) experiences of child victim/witnesses within the legal system. Implications for psychology and for legal practice are discussed.     

The effects of social support on children's eyewitness testimony

Child witnesses often give only short accounts of witnessed events. Part of the reason for this failing centres on the stress present during an interview. The most obvious means of reducing stress in children, through the provision of social support, has typically been neglected in eyewitness research, presumably because of fears over children's excessive suggestibility. Social support is also believed to inhibit children during interviews. However, these fears appear to stem more from general suspicions about children's competencies rather than empirical findings. Studies are described which show that child witnesses express a strong desire for social support, and that support may be provided in a number of different ways, from peers as well as adults. It is argued that social support is one of the most unfairly neglected issues in eyewitness research, and the minimal evidence available suggests that allowing support may have a facilitative effect on task performance, including free-recall memory.     

Bystanders’ affect toward bully and victim as predictors of helping and non-helping behaviour

The current study examined how children's relationship with the bully and victim impacted their reactions as bystanders. An ethnically diverse sample of 2,513 Canadian students in grades 4–7 responded to questions about their experiences of bullying, including the frequency with which they witnessed bullying at school. Approximately 89% of the sample reported witnessing bullying at school during the current school year. Subsequently, participants were asked to recall a specific bullying incident that they witnessed and describe: (1) their relationship with the bully and victim; (2) how they felt while witnessing; and (3) how they responded as a bystander. Compared to situations where they didn't know the victim, bystanders were more likely to intervene directly (e.g., try to stop the bully, comfort the victim) if they liked the victim, and less likely to tell an adult if they disliked the victim. Aggressive intervention was more common if the witness didn't like the bully, but also if they didn't like the victim compared to if they didn't know them. Regarding emotions, anger emerged as an especially powerful predictor of bystander defending, with youth being over five times more likely to try to stop the bullying or comfort the victim if they felt angry. Implications of these findings for the development of ecologically valid, anti-bullying interventions are discussed.     

Family violence

Researchers and policymakers have begun to recognize the extent and severity of family violence in recent years, particularly its effects on children. Despite a flurry of research, however, there is much disagreement about the definition of violence, its development, the consequences for victims, and the most effective avenues for intervention. Similar conceptual, methodological, and practical problems are faced by those working in the areas of physical child abuse, child sex abuse, and child witnesses to spouse abuse. In further research on these complex problems, researchers are encouraged to use operational definitions that avoid terms like abuse and violence, to focus new efforts on emotional mediators of violent actions, to evaluate the effects of violence on the entire family system, and to redouble efforts to conduct systematic outcome research. Those professionals who are currently responsible for intervention are encouraged to use definitions of and responses to family violence that match those used for assaults between strangers.     

Videotaped Versus In-Court Witness Testimony: Does Protecting the Child Witness Jeopardize Due Process?1

Videotaping depositions may protect a child witness from the stress of testifying in court but also may influence jurors’ perceptions of the child and the defendant, and jurors’ verdicts in systematic ways. The present study examines several psychological hypotheses that emerge from the controversy over the use of videotaped depositions of child witnesses in child sexual abuse trials. We predicted that student jurors viewing a videotaped deposition would be more proprosecution and less prodefense than those who did not receive testimony in such a form. Thus, it was predicted that jurors viewing a videotaped deposition would perceive the prosecution witnesses and their testimonies more favorably, the defense witnesses and their testimonies less favorably, and give more guilty verdicts than jurors who viewed identical testimony during the course of a trial. We also predicted that females would be more proprosecution and less prodefense than males and that this gender difference would be accentuated by the medium of presentation. The medium of presentation had only a few effects on jurors’ responses. However, when differences emerged, they generally provided support for the predicted main effects. The implications of these findings for the use of videotaped depositions of child sexual abuse victims are discussed.     

Relationships between Parental Maltreatment and Adolescents’ School Adjustment: Mediating Roles of Self-Esteem and Peer Attachment

Parental maltreatment of children has been steadily increasing in Korea despite national efforts to curb it. Children and adolescents who experience maltreatment develop psychological and social maladjustment. Therefore, mediating variables alleviating the negative effects of parental maltreatment on child development should be investigated to develop effective intervention programs. We identified the direct effects of parental abuse and neglect on adolescents’ school adjustment and the mediating effects of adolescents’ self-esteem and peer attachment on the relationships between parental abuse and neglect and their school adjustment. We used data from 2351 middle school students who participated in the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey. Structural equation modeling revealed the following: child neglect directly and negatively related with adolescents’ school adjustment, whereas child abuse did not. Further, while adolescents’ self-esteem and peer attachment mediated the relationship between child neglect and school adjustment, adolescents’ self-esteem alone mediated the relationship between child abuse and school adjustment. These findings imply that there is a need to develop different intervention programs based on child maltreatment types. Finally, we suggested that the negative effects of parental neglect on adolescents’ school adjustment could be alleviated by adolescents’ self-esteem recovery resulting from peer support. On the other hand, in the case of adolescents experiencing parental abuse, self-esteem recovery through education and counseling provided by teachers or respected adults could be prioritized.