Use of the MMPI-2 in American Indians: II. Empirical correlates

R. W. Robin, R. L. Greene, B. Albaugh, A. Caldwell, and D. Goldman (2003) reported that members of 2 American Indian tribal groups had statistically significant higher T scores on several MMPI-2 clinical, content, and supplementary scales than did the MMPI-2 normative group. The present study investigated the empirical correlates of the MMPI-2 scales in these American Indian tribal members. There were a large number of significant correlates reflecting antisocial symptoms with Scales 4 (Psychopathic Deviate), 9 (Hypomania), Anger, and Antisocial Practices. There were even a larger number of significant correlates reflecting generalized distress and negative affect with Scales 7 (Psychosthenia), 8 (Schizophrenia), Anxiety, Obsessions, Depression, and Welsh Anxiety. The rationally derived MMPI-2 content scales generally had larger correlations with these constructs than the clinical scales. Thus, the differences reported by R. W. Robin et al. (2003), appear to reflect behaviors and symptoms that American Indians participants were experiencing rather than test bias.     

A cultural-contextual perspective on the validity of the MMPI-2 with American Indians

This study investigated the normative validity of the MMPI-2 with two distinct American Indian tribes. Differences occurred on 8 of the 13 basic validity and clinical scales (F, 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) between the MMPI-2 norms and both tribal samples. Elevated MMPI-2 scores of American Indians may not only reflect the possibility of psychological distress spurred by historical oppression and present adversity, but also an expression of a divergent worldview. Considering the context of the historical and social production of knowledge about American Indians, it is argued that researchers and practitioners, when interpreting MMPI-2 results for American Indians, should seriously consider their interpretive points of reference, which may be impacted by dominant cultural belief systems.     

Comparability of computerized adaptive and conventional testing with the MMPI-2

A computerized adaptive version and the standard version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) were administered 1 week apart to a sample of 155 college students to assess the comparability of the two versions. The countdown method was used to adaptively administer Scales L, F, the I0 clinical scales, and the 15 new content scales. Profiles across administration modalities show a high degree of similarity, providing evidence for the comparability of computerized adaptive and conventional testing with the MMPI-2. Substantial item savings were found with the adaptive version. Future directions in the study of adaptive testing with the MMPI-2 are discussed.     

Comparability and validity of computerized adaptive testing with the MMPI-2

The comparability and validity of a computerized adaptive (CA) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) were assessed in a sample of 571 undergraduate college students. The CA MMPI-2 administered adaptively Scales L, E the 10 clinical scales, and the 15 content scales, utilizing the countdown method (Butcher, Keller, & Bacon, 1985). All subjects completed the MMPI-2 twice, with three experimental conditions: booklet test-retest, booklet-CA, and conventional computerized (CC)-CA. Profiles across administration modalities show a high degree of similarity, providing evidence for the comparability of the three forms. Correlations between MMPI-2 scales and other psychometric measures (Beck Depression Inventory; Symptom Checklist-Revised; State-Trait Anxiety and Anger Scales; and the Anger Expression Scale) support the validity of the CA MMPI-2. Substantial item savings may be realized with the implementation of the countdown procedure.     

Comparability of MMPI-2 scales and profiles over time

This study investigated Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) scale and profile comparablilty for MMPI-2 profiles completed on 2 separate occasions by mental health patients receiving treatment at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center (n = 114). Patients were predominantly men (96.5%), with an average age of 44.08 and an average of 12.39 years of education at the time of initial testing. MMPI-2 tests were completed on 2 separate occasions as a routine part of treatment with a mean interval between test administrations of 688 days. Findings were analyzed for the complete sample and for 3 subsamples with different test-retest intervals. MMPI-2 scale test-retest correlation coefficients for the entire sample ranged from .48 to .69 for the Basic scales, .49 to .80 for the Supplementary scales, and .56 to .78 for the Content scales with scale high-point agreement = 38.60%, high 2-point agreement = 16.67%, and high 3-point agreement = 19.30%. High-point agreement for subsets of participants with well-defined high points, 2-points and 3-points was 41.07%, 27.50%, and 25.93% respectively. Pearson r correlation coefficients for T scores across the Basic scales for pairs of profiles averaged .78, suggesting similarity of profile shape across testing occasions. MMPI-2 profiles were also examined in relation to Skinner and Jackson's 3 modal MMPI profile types.     

Code-Type Comparability of the MMPI and MMPI-2: Analysis of Recent Findings and Criticisms

The introduction of the MMPI-2 has stimulated studies of its comparability with the MMPI. Graham, Timbrook, Ben-Porath, and Butcher (1991) consider the congruence between MMPI-2 and MMPI code types substantial, but Dahlstrom (1992) has questioned their appraisal, criticizing their use of "well-defined" code types. Our own analysis supports Graham and colleagues' (1991) conclusions and provides reasons for favoring narrow code types (such as well- defined code types) over nonrestrictive ones. We also offer a brief historical review of MMPI code typology as background for our recommendation that future MMPI-2 research not be limited to studies of code-type correlates.     

Use of the MMPI-2 with Asian populations

Psychological tests developed in the United States are being widely adapted into other languages and cultures around the world. This article examines the generalizability and utility of personality assessment instruments across cultures and addresses methodological issues related to using personality questionnaires in countries different from the one in which they were developed. This article specifically highlights the application of objective psychological tests in Asia with special emphasis on the most widely used and internationally adapted personality instrument, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2 (MMPI-2). Effective strategies for translating, adapting, and standardizing questionnaires in languages and cultures different from their country of origin are reviewed. The history of several successful adaptations of the original MMPI and MMPI-2 is surveyed to illustrate the extensive research base for the test in Asia. Current research is summarized, and recommendations for future research are provided.     

Comparability of MMPI and MMPI-2 profile patterns: Ben-Porath and Tellegen's inappropriate invocation of Mahalanobis's D2 function

Ben-Porath and Tellegen (1995) claimed that the data in the article by Humphrey and Dahlstrom (1995) were improperly analyzed by means of Q correlations between raw scores earned by the individuals in the forensic sample to establish pattern comparability between the original Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989), which were then contrasted with Q correlations between the corresponding T-score patterns. Ben-Porath and Tellegen (1995) contended that the Q correlation is affected by random factors and that a generalized distance function, D2, is the only legitimate index of profile comparability. Data are presented here to show that the Q correlation serves as a reliable index of pattern comparability, relatively unaffected by differences in profile elevation. The Mahalanobis (1936) D2 index is too heavily weighted with differences in profile elevation serve as the proper index of equivalence in profile patterning. The findings in the Humphrey and Dahlstrom (1995) article were based on appropriate data-analytic procedures because the primary concern is their investigation was the extent to which the patterns of T-score profiles from the original MMPI and the MMPI-2 are comparable when the raw-score patterns are virtually identical.     

Interpretation of a full-information item-level factor analysis of the MMPI-2: normative sampling and nonpathognomonic descriptors

An exploratory item-level full-information factor analysis was performed on the normative sample for the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989). This method of factor analysis, developed by Schilling and Bock (Bock & Schilling, 1997) and based on item response theory, works directly with the response patterns and avoids the artifacts associated with phi coefficients and tetrachoric coefficients. Promax rotation of the factor solution organizes the clinical scale items into 10 factors that we labeled Distrust, Self-Doubt, Fitness, Serenity, Rebelliousness, Instrumentality, Irritability, Artistry, Sociability, and Self-Reliance. A comparison was made to the results of Johnson, Butcher, Null, and Johnson (1984), who performed a principal-component analysis on an item set of 550 items from the previous version of the MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943). Along with version changes and sampling differences, the essential differences between Johnson et al.'s results and ours may be attributed to differences between the Schilling and Bock method, which uses all information in the item responses, and the principal-component analysis, which uses the partial information contained in pairwise correlation coefficients. This study included 518 of the complete 567 items of the MMPI-2, versus Johnson et al.'s retention of 309 of the initially included 550 items of the previous MMPI. The full-information analysis retained all 518 initially included items and more evenly distributed the items over the 10 resulting factors, all sharply defined by their highest loading items and easy to interpret. Sampling effects and factor label considerations are discussed, along with recommendations for research that would validate the clinical utility of the implied scales for describing normal personality profiles. The full-information procedure provides for Bayes estimation of scores on these scales.     

Use of the MMPI-2 With Chicanos: Strategies for Counselors

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI-2) is frequently used by professional counselors to assess Chicano or Mexican American clients in various mental health settings. It is important to understand how ethnic and sociocultural variables (e.g., ethnic identity, acculturation, or racism) may influence the assessment process. This article presents strategies for the culturally competent use of the MMPI-2 with this burgeoning Hispanic subpopulation.     

A comparison of African American and White American veteran MMPI-2 profiles

The present study compared a matched sample of 180 African American and 180 White American veterans who completed the MMPI-2 as a part of their evaluation while receiving inpatient psychiatric treatment. Findings indicated no significant multivariate or univariate effects associated with race on the basic validity and clinical scales, a significant multivariate effect but no significant univariate effects associated with race across the supplementary scales. Overall the two groups had very similar mean profiles across the basic validity, clinical, and supplementary scales. Comparison of the two groups on the content scales yielded a significant multivariate and significant univariate effects with African Americans scoring higher on the FRS, BIZ, CYN, and ASP scales. Because the two groups differed in terms of frequency and type of drug abuse, follow-up 2 x 2 univariate analyses of variance were conducted for the FRS, BIZ, CYN, and ASP content scales comparing participants classified in terms of presence or absence of a primary or secondary drug abuse diagnosis by race. A significant main effect associated with drug abuse was obtained for ASP. Results are discussed and considered in light of earlier research on the MMPI-2 and race. Content scale differences are also discussed in terms of possible differences in worldview.     

Validity and clinical scale comparisons between the MMPI and MMPI-2 with psychiatric inpatients.

This study was designed to investigate the comparability of the original MMPI (1950) and the MMPI-2 (1989) with a psychiatric patient population. 34 male and 3 female patients, shortly after admission to one of two acute psychiatry units, completed the old and revised versions of the MMPI. Paired t tests indicated but scant differences for raw scores, while many more differences were found among T scores for validity, clinical, and supplemental scales. Analyses, however, showed all scales on the two forms to be highly correlated. Analysis of the high-point and two-point codes across the two administrations also showed relative stability, although the proportion of Scales 2 (Depression) and 8 (Schizophrenia) decreased, while those for Scales 6 (Paranoia) and 7 (Psychasthenia) increased markedly in the MMPI-2 protocols. Examination of each version's discriminability among mood- and thought-disordered subsamples suggested that the MMPI provides slightly better delineation between diagnostic classes. Discriminant function analyses showed that there were essentially no differences between the two forms in the accurate classification of clinical and nonclinical groups. The findings reported here provide support for the MMPI-2; despite modification, the newer form retains the advantages of the original MMPI. Differences found here may be unique to psychiatric patients and their patterns of MMPI/MMPI-2 equivalence and may not generalize to other special populations.     

Adherence to substance abuse treatment: clinical utility of two MMPI-2 scales.

In this study, we examined the ability of the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) Addiction Acknowledgment scale (AAS; Weed, Butcher, McKenna, & Ben-Porath, 1992) and Negative Treatment Indicators scale (TRT; Butcher, Graham, Williams, & Ben-Porath, 1990) to predict adherence to and outcomes from substance abuse treatment. There was no evidence that the AAS was related to treatment adherence or outcome in our sample. However, results did reveal a significant positive relation between scores on the TRT scale and readmission to the hospital. Further analyses identified an optimal score for use in similar clinical populations and settings, and characteristics of high and low scorers. Compared to low scorers, high TRT scorers were more likely to not return for treatment after an initial screening interview. If they did return for treatment, high TRT scorers were more likely to experience fewer treatment days and to be rated as having lower motivation, poorer participation, and poorer comprehension of program materials. These findings provide promising initial evidence of the utility of the TRT scale for identifying patients who may be at a high risk for unsuccessful substance abuse treatment.     

MMPI-2 L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting: normative and desirable responding

Norms based on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) normative sample are provided for the L + K and L + K - F indexes of underreporting and defensiveness. Index scores produced by consistently desirable responding, which was guided by desirability ratings of the MMPI-2 items, also are provided and compared with scores produced by underreporting in other studies. The indexes correlate highly with other measures of underreporting in both normative and clinical samples. The L and K scales assess different types of underreporting and should be interpreted separately as well as in combination. The L scale can be elevated by undesirable responding or random responding in addition to desirable responding.     

MMPI-2 characteristics of the Old Order Amish: a comparison of clinical, nonclinical, and United States normative samples

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 23(4) of Psychological Assessment (see record 2011-12640-001). The article contains an error under the Participants and Procedure heading. This is addressed in the correction.] In the current study, we investigated Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) characteristics in an Old Order Amish nonclinical sample (N = 84), comparing these data with both the United States normative sample (N = 2,600) and a sample of Old Order Amish outpatients (N = 136). Consistent with our hypothesis, the Old Order Amish nonclinical group scored similarly to the United States normative sample and lower than the Old Order Amish outpatients on most scales. Thus, overall, the MMPI-2 appears to be sensitive to psychopathology, especially depression and psychosis, among Old Order Amish test takers. Still, several Validity, Clinical, Supplementary, Content, and Personality Psychopathology Five (PSY-5) scale score differences materialized between the Old Order Amish nonclinical group and the United States group, suggesting that certain MMPI-2 scales may need to be interpreted differently for Old Order Amish test takers. Further MMPI-2 research is needed with the Old Order Amish to replicate and generalize our findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).     

Comparability of two-point high-point code patterns from original MMPI norms to MMPI-2 norms for the restandardization sample

Using records from the 1,138 males and 1,462 females in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) restandardization sample (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989), two-point high-point code patterns generated from the original norms were compared to the patterns that these subjects obtained from the new norms. Although some code patterns proved to be quite stable across both norms, code comparability was generally lower in this community-based sample than was true for the records from samples of psychiatric patients also reported in Butcher et al. (1989). The sources of differences between the original and the new norms were reviewed, and the implications for profile interpretation based on code patterns were pointed out. The differences arising from the use of the MMPI-2 norms are appreciable; they highlight the need for new empirical data on the correlates of coding patterns based on these norms.     

Effects of acculturation on the MMPI-2 scores of Asian American students

The use of the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstron, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) with minorities has been questioned due to potential misinterpretations related to cultural differences. This study examined acculturative differences among Asian American college students and their scores on the validity and clinical scales. A sample of Asian American students (n = 90) was assigned to groups based on acculturation level. Analysis of variance tests indicated that low-acculturated, bicultural, and high-acculturated Asian Americans yielded different profiles. Compared to a matched White student sample, low-acculturated Asian Americans scored significantly higher on 9 scales, and bicultural Asian Americans had 6 significantly different scores. These differences were clinically interpretable with a range from 6.46 to 21.65 T-score points. High-acculturated Asian Americans did not differ from Whites. Cultural variables to be considered when interpreting Asian American profiles are discussed.     

Comparability of Two-Point High-Point Code Patterns From Original MMPI Norms to MMPI-2 Norms for the Restandardization Sample

Using records from the 1,138 males and 1,462 females in the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) restandardization sample (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989), two-point high-point code patterns generated from the original norms were compared to the patterns that these subjects obtained from the new norms. Although some code patterns proved to be quite stable across both norms, code comparability was generally lower in this community-based sample than was true for the records from samples of psychiatric patients also reported in Butcher et al. (1989). The sources of differences between the original and the new norms were reviewed, and the implications for profile interpretation based on code patterns were pointed out. The differences arising from the use of the MMPI-2 norms are appreciable; they highlight the need for new empirical data on the correlates of coding patterns based on these norms.     

A comparison of MMPI-2 validity in African American and Caucasian psychiatric inpatients

This study investigated ethnic differences on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) in 229 African American and 1,558 Caucasian psychiatric inpatients. Mean differences were found on several MMPI-2 validity and clinical scales. These were generally consistent with differences between the groups, indicated by the available extratest criterion data. To identify potential bias, the authors conducted 65 step-down hierarchical multiple regression analyses, predicting conceptually relevant clinical criteria from either MMPI-2 clinical or content scales for each gender. A number of MMPI-2 scales evidenced bias reflecting minor underprediction of psychopathology in African Americans. It is important to note that, in almost all cases, the magnitude of these differences was small and not clinically significant.     

Comparability of the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 between women and men

Researchers studying eating disorders in men often use eating-disorder risk and symptom measures that have been validated only on women. Using a sample of 215 college women and 214 college men, this article reports on the validity the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), one of the best-validated among women and the most widely used risk and symptom measure for women. The EDI-2 had the same, standard eight-factor structure for both genders, and tests of invariance showed that factor loadings, factor variances, and factor intercorrelations were equivalent across gender. The EDI-2 scales correlated with questionnaire measures of bulimic and anorexic symptomatology equivalently across gender. However the EDI-2 scales were generally less reliable for men, leading to slightly lower Pearson-based estimates of correlations among the measures for men.