Gender role conflict,gender-typed characteristics,self-concepts,and sport socialization in female athletes and nonathletes

Gender role conflict, masculinity, femininity, physical appearance self-concept, athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents among female athletes and nonathletes were examined in 76 female athletes and 69 female nonathletes (N= 145). Similar to previous research, results indicated no significant differences in the gender role conflict of female athletes and nonathletes. Results also indicated that, as predicted, female athletes exhibited significantly more positive athletic competence self-concept, body image self-concept, and athletic participation by parents than female nonathletes. Both participants' body image self-concept and parental sport participation were significantly and inversely related to their amount of gender role conflict. Implications for differences in the social personality and gender role development of female athletes and nonathletes are discussed. Special thanks to Francis Street for her helpful assistance. Thanks also to Pete Toye, Ph.D., Academic Advisor, the University of Wyoming Athletic Department and to coaches Mark Miller, Linda Conger, Mike English, Karoline Eide, Kyle Linton, Chad Lavin, Brenda Erikson, and Paul Barret for their cooperation and assistance.     

Influence of sport participation upon sex role orientation of caucasian males and their attitudes toward women

Differences in psychological androgyny and attitudes toward women were examined in male Caucasian intercollegiate contact and noncontact sport athletes and male Caucasian college nonathletes. Contact athletes in the sports of football and wrestling, noncontact athletes in the sports of baseball and track and field, and nonathletes completed the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (ATWS) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to assess egalitarian attitudes toward women and sex role orientation. Results of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) on the ATWS indicate that athletes as a group possessed more conservative, traditional attitudes toward women than did nonathletes, but that no differences existed between contact sport athletes and noncontact sport athletes. Results of ANOVAs and chi-square analyses on the BSRI indicated no differences between groups regarding sex role orientation based upon self-perceptions of masculinity and femininity.     

Differentiated additive androgyny model: relations between masculinity, femininity, and multiple dimensions of self-concept.

Masculinity (M) and femininity (F) were related to multiple dimensions of self-concept in 2 large studies. Androgyny theory predicts that M and F contribute positively to self-concept, but the effect of F has been nil in research using global self measures. Here, consistent with the new differentiated additive model, the relative contribution of M and F varied substantially, depending on the area of self-concept; F contributed more positively to self-concept facets that were more stereotypically feminine. Support for the model was consistent across self-responses and responses by significant others (Study 1) and across 5 age groups in early-to-middle adolescence (Study 2).     

Correlates of Orgasm Adequacy in a Group of 556 Wives

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

The relationship between types of female athletic participation and female body type

In the present study, the authors examined 53 female athletes drawn from 4 different sports and 55 female nonathletes. The athletes were divided into 2 groups: speed focused and technique focused. The nonathlete control group consisted of college women who had not participated in any varsity sports at the university level. Participants were measured on scales of body dissatisfaction, preoccupation with weight, and self-perceptions of body type and weight. Analyses revealed that (a) speed-focused athletes and technique-focused athletes did not differ significantly in their concerns about weight and body image, and (b) nonathletes expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies than both of the athlete groups. Results are discussed with regard to associations between female sports participation and body image.     

A comparison of maladaptive behaviors of athletes and nonathletes.

A comparison of maladaptive behavior tendencies of men and women who were athletes and nonathletes was undertaken. Participating students (N = 200) were divided into four groups: male athletes, male nonathletes, female athletes, and female nonathletes. Maladaptive behavior tendencies were determined from responses on C. MacAndrew's (1965) Alcoholism Scale. The statistical analysis used was an independent groups 2 x 2 analysis of variance to determine significant main effects and interaction effects. The mean maladaptive behavior score (MBS) for athletes (M = 21.87) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for nonathletes (M = 20.24). The MBS for the men (M = 21.68) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for the women (M = 20.43). No significant interaction (p > .05) between gender and athletic status was found. Male athletes are more likely than the other 3 groups to have maladaptive behavior tendencies. Research directed toward greater understanding and the development of preventive and coping techniques for this population is needed.     

Perceptions of current and ideal body shape of athletes and nonathletes

This study was done to examine the relationship between sex and perception of body image among athletes and nonathletes. A total of 211 men and women athletes and nonathletes completed a questionnaire which asked them to identify from a nine-figure body-silhouette scale their current image and the image that they thought was most ideal. t tests showed no significant differences for men based upon athletic participation and that both athletes and nonathletes were satisfied with their body image. However, when comparing current image and ideal image, significant differences were found for women athletes and nonathletes. These data support previous research documenting women's dissatisfaction with their body images and show athletic participation is not associated with this perception.     

Socialization influences of collegiate female athletes: A tale of two decades

Over the past decade, sport participation opportunities for females have increased dramatically. The purposes of this study were to compare perceptions of encouragement and support from socializing agents for: (a) female collegiate volleyball players competing during the 1979 and 1989 seasons, and (b) female collegiate athletes and female and male nonathletes. Female athletes (n= 345), female nonathletes (n= 128), and male nonathletes (n= 88) completed a questionnaire to assess significant others' influence on sport involvement during childhood, adolescence, and college years. Results indicated that interest and encouragement by parents, older siblings, and friends significantly increased for female athletes over the past 10 years during one or more developmental period. Discriminant analyses revealed that female athletes perceived stronger influences from mother, siblings, friends, and coaches than did male and female nonathletes. These results demonstrate that female athletes received greater social support than their peers a decade earlier, and these influences were significantly different than male and female nonathletes. This study was supported by a grant awarded to the first author by the Center for the Study of Women in Society, University of Oregon, Eugene.     

How Do Athletic Status and Disability Status Affect the Five-Factor Model of Personality?

This article addresses the issue of whether athletic status and disability status affect the Big Five personality dimensions (Surgency, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Intellect/Openness to Experience). Scores were compared between groups of athletes and nonathletes who either did or did not have disabilities. Individuals with disabilities had higher scores for Emotional Stability and Conscien- tiousness and lower scores for Extraversion than did fully able respondents. Athletic status did not affect scores, although the time of onset of impairment had significant effects on scale scores. The personality model's internal psychometric properties (reliabilities, means, variances, correlational structure) among people with disabilities did not differ appreciably from fully able respondents. Implications are discussed.     

Comparing the self-concepts of Hong Kong Chinese adults with visible and not visible physical disability

In the present study, the authors evaluated the self-concept levels of Hong Kong Chinese adults with visible and not visible physical disabilities. Fifty-five Hong Kong Chinese (22 men and 33 women) aged 18 to 55 (M = 39.50, SD = 10.21) participated-20 without physical disabilities (control group), 20 with visible physical disabilities, and 15 with physical disabilities that were not visible. All the participants responded to the Self-Concept Questionnaire for Hong Kong Chinese With Physical Disabilities (SCQPD; S. F. Tam & D. Watkins, 1997). The group with visible disabilities scored significantly lower in self-concept than did the control group and the group with disabilities that were not visible. There were also significant differences between specific facets of self-concept for people with visible and not visible disabilities. It was interesting to find that there was no significant difference in self-concept levels between the not visible group and the control group. The implications for rehabilitation and social services for these various groups are discussed.     

Gender Role Orientation of Athletes and Nonathletes in a Patriarchal Society: A Study in Turkey

The purpose of this study was to compare the gender role orientation and gender role classification of female and male athletes to those of their nonathlete counterparts. A total of 463 athletes and 378 nonathletes completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The findings indicated that athletes score higher on the masculinity and femininity subscales than do nonathletes. Men had higher scores on masculinity than did women, whereas women had higher scores on femininity than did men. In addition, both men and women athletes were mostly classified in the androgynous category. These findings are discussed in relation to the competitive sport environment and Turkish society.     

Body-esteem, body mass index, and risk for disordered eating among adolescents in synchronized swimming

The aim of this study was to examine dimensions of body-esteem, Body Mass Index, and their relations with eating disorder symptoms among 42 elite adolescent athletes engaged in competitive synchronized swimming (M = 15.4 yr., SD = 1.2) and to compare them with 40 athletes in sports with no emphasis on leanness (M = 16.5 yr., SD = .93), and 50 nonathlete college female students (M = 16.3 yr., SD = 1.1). They completed the Body-esteem Scale and the Eating Attitudes Test, and the Body Mass Index was computed. Analysis showed synchronized swimmers reported greater negative feelings about their appearance than the two other groups and low perceptions of how others evaluate their physical appearance. Participants did not differ on the EAT-26. Regression analyses showed that Body Mass Index and Body-esteem Appearance accounted for 38% of the variance in log-transformed Dieting scores of synchronized swimmers. Results are discussed in relation to the literature.     

Relation between sport and spatial imagery: comparison of three groups of participants

The literature suggests that sport may be considered a spatial activity and that engaging in spatial activities increases the capacity of an individual to implement mental imagery. Moreover, mental rotation calls upon motor processes that are heavily involved in sporting activities. For these reasons, the authors hypothesized that athletes ought to perform mental rotation tasks better than nonathletes. Also, athletes trained to react quickly to constantly changing environments should be faster at processing the information in a mental rotation task than athletes operating in more settled environments. The results of this study show that athletes performed the mental rotation task significantly faster than nonathletes. These results support the suggestion that there is a link between sport and the ability to perform mental image transformations; however, this ability may not be specific to the conditions in which the athlete performs.     

Goal orientation, motivational climate, and dispositional flow of high school students engaged in extracurricular physical activity

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of goal orientation, motivational climate, and dispositional flow in physical education lessons on extracurricular involvement in physical activity. Questionnaires were administered to 1,103 (792 athletes; 311 nonathletes) secondary school students (M age = 14.3 yr., SD = 0.7). Analysis showed significant mean differences between groups on goal orientation and dispositional flow in physical education lessons, but none for perception of motivational climate. These findings suggest that dispositional variables are related to extracurricular involvement in physical activity.     

The relationship between athletic participation and high school students' leadership ability

This study examined the relationship between adolescents' participation in athletics and their leadership skills. In a sample of 60 suburban high school students, athletes demonstrated significantly greater leadership ability than did nonathletes (according to their mean scores on the Leadership Ability Evaluation). Female athletes showed greater leadership ability than did male athletes, although the difference between their scores was not statistically significant. The implications of these findings for school athletic programs are discussed.     

Self-esteem,self-concept,and the life goals and sex-role attitudes of college students1

Questionnaires that assessed self-esteem, self-concept, educational goals, career goals, preferred and expected career commitment, and sex-role attitudes were completed by 884 male and female undergraduates representing two racial groups and two age groups. Men and women did not differ significantly in terms of self-esteem, but the men described themselves as more attractive than did the women in their age group. For the 18–25-year-old white women, an intelligent, unconventional, and/or nonreligious self-concept predicts nontraditional goals and feminist attitudes, and the interaction between self-esteem and socioeconomic status influences educational goals and sex-role attitudes. For the 18–25-year-old white men, a physically strong and intelligent self-concept predicts higher educational goals and traditional career goals, and lower self-described strength and religiousness and greater intelligence predict more feminist attitudes. Physical self-concept is unrelated to goals or attitudes for the female samples. Self-concept is less strongly predictive of goals and attitudes for the black women and the older men and women. Possible reasons for the sample differences and implications for related research are discussed.     

Provoked and unprovoked aggressiveness in athletes

In a factorial design, athletic involvement (no varsity sport, varsity noncontact sport, varsity contact sport) was varied with induced disposition (unprovoked, provoked). Under conditions of no provocation, no significant differences in aggressiveness were observed between nonathletes and athletes, nor between noncontact- and contact-sport athletes. In contrast, under conditions of provocation, nonathletes displayed more aggressiveness than athletes. Non-contact-sport athletes behaved significantly less aggressively than both nonathletes and contact-sport athletes. Contact-sport athletes failed to behave significantly less aggressively than nonathletes, however. The findings were explained as the result of an acquired superior ability in athletes to cope with provocation under competitive circumstances, which is partially counteracted in contact-sport athletes by their aggressiveness habits and disinhibition training.     

SOCIAL STIMULUS PERCEPTION AND SELF-EVALUATION: EFFECTS OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE PHASE

Women in different phases of the menstrual cycle were compared to each other and to men in their responses to a social interaction stimulus: a videotape depicting a female nurse interacting with a hospitalized patient. Sex differences and cycle-phase differences were found for both affective and cognitive dimensions. Premenstrual women reported feeling more dominant, energetic, indifferent, negative, and somewhat more tense than women menstruating or women in the intermenstrual cycle phase. However, they did not differ from men in their affective ratings. Premenstrual women evaluated the nurse as less attractive than did men and they attributed greater responsibility for the nurse's behavior to the patient than men and intermenstrual women. Women in all groups evaluated the nurse as nicer and more pleasant, interesting, concerned and self-assured than did men. All women also felt more friendly toward the nurse and reported that they would be more comfortable asking her questions than the men did. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Masculinity-femininity of self-concept: Its effect on the achievement behavior of women

The achievement behavior of women was examined in relation to their masculinity-femininity of self-concept and the mediating effects of the situation. The masculinity-femininity of self-concept of 58 female subjects was determined through the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (J. Spence, R. Helmreich, and J. Stapp, The Personal Attributes Questionnaire: A Measure of Sex Role Stereotypes and Masculinity-Femininity, Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1974, 4, 43–44). These subjects then competed in either a mixed-sex or same-sex group. Each subject was led to believe she was a high-ability performer in relation to the group members she competed against. While feminine women did not display poorer performance when competing against lower ability males than lower ability females, they did feel more ambivalence than the others about performing successfully in a competitive situation.The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions and support of Dr. M. L. Dietz, Dr. W. Libby, Dr. L. M. Jackson, and Dr. F. Schneider.