The relationship power inventory: Development and validation

Power is a central concept in relationships, yet existing self‐report measures of relationship power are not well validated and do not assess all aspects of power. To address this, we developed the Relationship Power Inventory (RPI), a self‐report measure of power for romantic partners. In Study 1, we identified the most important decision‐making domains in romantic relationships. In Study 2, we generated an item pool assessing relationship power, selected the best performing items for inclusion, and tested the convergent and divergent validity properties of the RPI. Study 3 revealed RPI scores predict observer ratings of power during decision‐making discussions and showed the RPI has good test–retest reliability. We discuss how the RPI can advance research on power in close relationships     

Attitudes toward intimate partner violence in dating relationships

Prevention of intimate partner violence on college campuses includes programs designed to change attitudes, and hence, a scale that assesses such attitudes is needed. Study 1 (N = 859) cross validates the factor structure of the Intimate Partner Violence Attitude Scale-Revised using exploratory factor analysis and presents initial validity data on the scale. In Study 2 (N = 687), the obtained three-factor structure (Abuse, Control, Violence) is tested using confirmatory factor analysis, and it is shown to be concurrently related to assault in romantic relationships and to predict psychological aggression 14 weeks later. The findings are discussed in the context of how understanding and modifying attitudes assessed by the Intimate Partner Violence Attitude Scale-Revised may improve interventions aimed at reducing intimate partner violence.     

Relationships,health, and stress: Validation of a relationship sense of coherence measure

Although all romantic relationships experience stress, some thrive when faced with adversity while others are unable to manage the inevitable relationship ups and downs. Rather than seeing stress as a risk factor, this study applied a Salutogenic framework, which posits that stress is a naturally occurring and potentially beneficial part of relationships, to develop a new measure of relationship health and well‐being. In Study 1, we created and tested a self‐report Relationship Sense of Coherence (RSOC) scale. Study 2 demonstrated evidence of convergent reliability for the RSOC. In Study 3, we tested the RSOC in a two‐wave sample of romantically‐involved individuals with a chronic health condition. Guidelines for use and implications for future research are discussed.     

The Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS): reliability and validity evidence for a new measure of relationship closeness

A fundamental dimension along which all social and personal relationships vary is closeness. The Unidimensional Relationship Closeness Scale (URCS) is a 12-item self-report scale measuring the closeness of social and personal relationships. The reliability and validity of the URCS were assessed with college dating couples (N = 192), female friends and strangers (N = 330), friends (N = 170), and family members (N = 155). The results show that the scale is unidimensional, with high reliability across relationship types (M α = .96). Evidence consistent with validity included substantial within-couple agreement for the romantic couples (intraclass correlation = .41), substantial friend-stranger discrimination for the female friends (η2 = .82), and measurement invariance across relationship types. Evidence of convergent and divergent validity was obtained for inclusion of other in the self and relational satisfaction, respectively.     

Conceptualization and assessment of disengagement in romantic relationships

Research examining relationship distress and dissolution highlights the importance of romantic disengagement. Nevertheless, prior conceptualizations and measures of romantic disengagement have tended to combine disengagement with related but distinct constructs hindering the study of romantic disengagement. The present research used exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses to clarify the conceptualization of romantic disengagement and to develop a novel measure—the Romantic Disengagement Scale (RDS). The RDS demonstrated adequate fit across samples of dating individuals (n = 203), married couples (n = 77), and women in physically aggressive relationships (n = 42) from the Midwestern United States. The RDS also demonstrated strong divergent and incremental validity. The discussion focuses on implications for enhancing conceptual models, research methodology, and clinical interventions.     

Relational humility: conceptualizing and measuring humility as a personality judgment

The study of humility has progressed slowly due to measurement problems. We describe a model of relational humility that conceptualizes humility as a personality judgment. In this set of 5 studies, we developed the 16-item Relational Humility Scale (RHS) and offered initial evidence for the theoretical model. In Study 1 (N = 300), we developed the RHS and its subscales--Global Humility, Superiority, and Accurate View of Self. In Study 2, we confirmed the factor structure of the scale in an independent sample (N = 196). In Study 3, we provided initial evidence supporting construct validity using an experimental design (N = 200). In Study 4 (N = 150), we provided additional evidence of construct validity by examining the relationships between humility and empathy, forgiveness, and other virtues. In Study 5 (N = 163), we adduced evidence of discriminant and incremental validity of the RHS compared with the Honesty-Humility subscale of the HEXACO-PI (Lee & Ashton, 2004).     

How can I connect with thee? Let me count the ways

Two studies were conducted to examine mental representations of loneliness and social connectedness. In Study 1, young adults (N = 2,531) completed the revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA scale) and demographic questionnaires. An exploratory factor analysis of the R-UCLA scale on half the sample revealed a three-dimensional conceptual structure that generalized across gender. This mental representation consisted of correlated facets labeled Isolation, Relational Connectedness, and Collective Connectedness. A confirmatory factor analysis on the other half of the sample corroborated this three-factor solution. In Study 2, a population-based sample of 197 older males and females (M(age) = 57.5 years) completed the R-UCLA scale and measures of objective social circumstances. The confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor structure in this diverse and older adult sample. Each facet was uniquely predicted by theoretically related social circumstances. These findings suggest how humans make meaning of their social relationships in their mental representations of loneliness and connectedness.     

Attachment, borderline personality, and romantic relationship dysfunction

Previous studies have implicated attachment and disturbances in romantic relationships as important indicators for Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). The current research extends our current knowledge by examining the specific associations among attachment, romantic relationship dysfunction, and BPD, above and beyond the contribution of emotional distress and nonromantic interpersonal functioning in two distinct samples. Study 1 comprised a community sample of women (N = 58) aged 25-36. Study 2 consisted of a psychiatric sample (N = 138) aged 21-60. Results from both Study 1 and Study 2 demonstrated that (1) attachment was specifically related to BPD symptoms and romantic dysfunction, (2) BPD symptoms were specifically associated with romantic dysfunction, and (3) the association between attachment and romantic dysfunction was statistically mediated by BPD symptoms. The findings support specific associations among attachment, BPD symptoms, and romantic dysfunction.     

Relationship social comparison interpretations and dating relationship quality,behaviors, and mood

Social comparisons are common in dating relationships. We examined individuals' cognitive interpretations (e.g., hope for the future or one's own relationship is not doing well) after an upward, downward, or lateral social comparison to a friend's dating relationship. Exploratory factor analyses indicated three factors in the Relationship Social Comparison Interpretation scale (RSCI): negative interpretations, positive upward interpretations, and positive downward interpretations (Studies 1 and 2). Hierarchical regressions controlling for comparison direction and individual differences in relationship social comparison orientation indicated that the RSCI was associated with relationship satisfaction, commitment, and positive and negative affect (Studies 1 and 2). There were also direct and indirect effects (through relationship quality) of the RSCI, with attention to alternatives and accommodation behaviors (Study 2).     

The Impact of Counselor and Participant Gender on Willingness to Discuss Relational Topics: Development of the Relationship Disclosure Scale

The current investigation examined people's willingness to disclose personal information about their intimate relationships to counselors. This was accomplished by asking 431 students to indicate how willing they would be to discuss 25 relationship topics, as measured by the newly developed Relationship Disclosure Scale (RDS), with female and male counselors. The results indicated that people's willingness to disclose their intimate relationships to counselors depended on their own gender, the gender of the counselor, and the particular relationship topics assessed by the RDS. In addition, several personality variables associated with relational-esteem and relational-consciousness were found to be associated with women's willingness to engage in relationship disclosure with male and female counselors. These findings underscore the impact of gender and personality on counseling disclosure tendencies. The discussion focuses on gender and the use of the RDS in research and counseling settings.     

代际团结潜在类别与关系质量对自陈健康及幸福感的影响

本研究考察了成年子女与其父母的代际关系中团结和关系质量对代际双方身体和心理结果的影响。研究1中,对中国成年子女（N=1283）的潜在类别分析结果显示是六种代际团结类别,多项逻辑回归表明两代人的特征会影响团结潜在类别和关系质量。研究2中,对367对中国成年子女-父母（N=734）的报告进行等级线性建模,行动者-搭档互依模型结果指出好的团结潜在类别（自我和搭档报告的）和好的关系质量（自我报告的）与两代人的高幸福感相关,好的团结潜在类别（自我和搭档报告的）和好的关系质量（自我和搭档报告的）预测了两代人的低心理苦恼;其中代际和性别调节了团结类别和关系质量对自我报告健康及幸福感的作用,同时,两代人团结类别的交互作用和评价的相似性也影响了幸福感和心理苦恼。     

The Moral Metacognition Scale: Development and Validation

Scholars have advocated for the inclusion of metacognition (i.e., the extent to which one thinks about one’s thinking) in our understanding of the ethical decision making process and in support of moral learning. An instrument to measure metacognition as a domain-specific capacity related to ethical decision making (i.e. moral metacognition) is not found in the current literature. This research describes the development and validation of the 20-item Moral Metacognition Scale (MMS). Psychometric properties of the scale were assessed by exploration (Study 1) and confirmation (Study 2) of the factor structure, and the demonstration of convergent (Studies 3 and 4), discriminant (Studies 3 and 4), and predictive (Study 4) validity. Moral metacognition, as measured by the MMS, was significantly correlated with ethical awareness and ethical judgment. Limitations of our research, suggestions for future exploration, and practical implications are discussed.     

Dimensions of Relationship Quality

Four studies examined the dimensions of relationship quality. In Study 1, based on a principal components analysis, four dimensions underlying the prototype of relationship quality were identified: intimacy, agreement, independence, and sexuality. The four–factorial structure was replicated both with a German sample (Study 2) and a Canadian sample (Study 3). Study 4 tested the validity of scales based on the four–factorial structure of relationship quality with German and Canadian samples. Relationship satisfaction was predicted well by the four scales, with intimacy contributing most, and sexuality least, to overall relationship satisfaction. The four scales correlated as predicted with other constructs relevant to close relationships, such as commitment, trust, love, and the like. Consequences for the measurement of relationship quality are discussed.     

For the Win: Risk‐Sensitive Decision‐Making in Teams

Risk‐sensitivity theory predicts that decision‐makers should prefer high‐risk options in high need situations when low‐risk options will not meet these needs. Recent attempts to adopt risk‐sensitivity as a framework for understanding human decision‐making have been promising. However, this research has focused on individual‐level decision‐making, has not examined behavior in naturalistic settings, and has not examined the influence of multiple levels of need on decision‐making under risk. We examined group‐level risk‐sensitive decision‐making in two American football leagues: the National Football League (NFL) and the National College Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I. Play decisions from the 2012 NFL (Study 1; N = 33 944), 2013 NFL (Study 2; N = 34 087), and 2012 NCAA (Study 3; N = 15 250) regular seasons were analyzed. Results demonstrate that teams made risk‐sensitive decisions based on two distinct needs: attaining first downs (a key proximate goal in football) and acquiring points above parity. Evidence for risk‐sensitive decisions was particularly strong when motivational needs were most salient. These findings are the first empirical demonstration of team risk‐sensitivity in a naturalistic organizational setting. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Decision to Test in Women Receiving Genetic Counseling for BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutations

Functions of genetic counseling include provision of risk information and provision of support in an effort to assist with decision making. This study examines (1) the relationship among intentions to test, self-reported provision of blood sample, and receipt of test results; (2) the impact of genetic counseling on distress specific to gene status, perceived risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer in the context having BRCA1/2 mutations (mutations predisposing to increased risk of breast-ovarian cancer), and perceived risk factors for breast cancer; and (3) the clinical profile of those receiving/not receiving results. Intentions to test for BRCA1/2 mutations, self-reported provision of blood sample immediately after counseling, and receipt of test results were statistically different but highly correlated, and intentions to test increased from pre- to postcounseling. A repeated measures ANOVA found distress specific to gene status and perceived risk factors decreased from pre- to postcounseling. Further, two clinical profiles of consultands emerged: (1) those receiving results with change in intentions to test having lower levels of distress and (2) those not receiving results and those receiving results with no change in intentions to test with higher levels of distress. Our findings are consistent with the function of genetic counseling-to provide information and support to those with familial cancer, as well as to assist in decision making. The provision of support is important as distress specific to gene status may impede flexible decision making about genetic testing.     

Anxiety sensitivity, body vigilance and fear of pain

The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of anxiety sensitivity (AS) as a factor relevant to pain and pain persistence. Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between AS, body vigilance and the experience of pain in non-clinical samples. Study 1 investigated the relationship between AS and body vigilance that was operationalized by the detection latency for innocuous electrical stimuli; trait anxiety and neuroticism were also included as covariates. Results indicated that the high AS group (N=69) presented shorter detection latency than the low AS group (N=70); neuroticism and trait anxiety did not have significant effects on detection latency. Using another sample, Study 2 investigated the relationship between AS, body vigilance, pain tolerance, catastrophizing, and self-reported distress and pain during a cold pressor task. Neuroticism, trait anxiety and fear of pain were included as covariates. Results showed significant differences between high- (N=66) and low- (N=69) AS groups in body vigilance, catastrophizing and tolerance. The covariates neuroticism, trait anxiety and fear of pain did not have any significant effects. No significant differences were found in pain and distress ratings. Results from both studies support the importance of AS in body vigilance and the experience of pain. The theoretical, preventive and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Transportation Scale–Short Form (TS–SF)

One popular concept to capture the experience of being immersed into the world of a story is that of transportation. This article examines the factorial validity of the Transportation Scale (TS) and introduces a short and psychometrically sound alternative for the assessment of transportation. Exploratory bifactor modeling in Study 1 (N = 179) provided support for the hypothesized factor structure of the original TS with three facets and a general transportation factor. Based on these analyses, a six-item short version of the scale, the Transportation Scale–Short Form (TS–SF), was developed. Study 2 (N = 131 and N = 246) as well as Study 3 (N = 301) corroborated the short form's factorial structure, reliability, and validity.     

Attitude‐behaviour consistency: the role of group norms,attitude accessibility,and mode of behavioural decision‐making

The interplay between two perspectives that have recently been applied in the attitude area—the social identity approach to attitude‐behaviour relations (Terry & Hogg, 1996 ) and the MODE model (Fazio, 1990a )—was examined in the present research. Two experimental studies were conducted to examine the role of group norms, group identification, attitude accessibility, and mode of behavioural decision‐making in the attitude‐behaviour relationship. In Study 1 (N = 211), the effects of norms and identification on attitude‐behaviour consistency as a function of attitude accessibility and mood were investigated. Study 2 (N = 354) replicated and extended the first experiment by using time pressure to manipulate mode of behavioural decision‐making. As expected, the effects of norm congruency varied as a function of identification and mode of behavioural decision‐making. Under conditions assumed to promote deliberative processing (neutral mood/low time pressure), high identifiers behaved in a manner consistent with the norm. No effects emerged under positive mood and high time pressure conditions. In Study 2, there was evidence that exposure to an attitude‐incongruent norm resulted in attitude change only under low accessibility conditions. The results of these studies highlight the powerful role of group norms in directing individual behaviour and suggest limited support for the MODE model in this context. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Koala Fear Questionnaire: a standardized self-report scale for assessing fears and fearfulness in pre-school and primary school children

The Koala Fear Questionnaire (KFQ) is a standardized self-report scale for assessing fears and fearfulness in children aged between 4 and 12 years. The current article presents six studies which examined the reliability and validity of the KFQ. Study 1 (N=108) demonstrated that the visual fear scales of Koala bears as employed in the KFQ are highly comparable to the standard 3-point scales that are used in other childhood fear measures. Study 2 (N=163) provided support for the convergent validity of the KFQ in a sample of 8- to 14-year-old children. That is, the scale correlated substantially with alternative measures of childhood fear and anxiety. Study 3 (N=189) showed that the KFQ possesses good internal consistency and test-retest stability in a group of 8- to 11-year-old children. The results of Studies 4 (N=129) and 5 (N=176) indicated that the KFQ is suitable for children aged 4 to 6 years and demonstrated that the psychometric properties of the scale in younger children are highly similar to those obtained in older children. Study 6 (N=926) showed that the factor structure of the KFQ was theoretically meaningful: although the data clearly pointed in the direction of one factor of general fearfulness, spurs of the commonly found five-factor solution of childhood fear were found in the KFQ. Altogether, the KFQ seems to be a valuable addition to the instrumentarium of clinicians and researchers who are working with fearful and anxious children.