Psychological androgyny and personality adjustment in college and psychiatric populations

In two separate studies, 106 female and 84 male undergraduates and 48 female and 48 male psychiatric inpatients were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Faschingbauer Abbreviated Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. The masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated groups identified from the BSRI differed on a variety of personality scales in both normal and clinical populations. Androgynous females were significantly lower on the Depression (D) and Social Introversion (Si) scales than feminine females, and, in the college sample, were also lower on the Schizophrenia and Mania scales than masculine females. In the hospitalized male sample, this pattern was partially sustained, with androgynous and masculine subjects being significantly less deviant than feminine on the Si scale, and tending to score lower on the D scale. In the group of college males, androgynous males scored lower on the Si scale than feminine males. Hypotheses concerning the relationship of sex-role flexibility (androgyny) to mental health appear to be supported for females in both college and psychiatric populations by these results. These results also indicate that sex-role conformity may relate differently to personality development and psychological functioning for males and females.     

Real or imagined incomplete lateralization of function in females?

Visual field effects for 30 normal familial right-handed females were investigated with 4-point random forms known to be recognized more accurately in the right visual field by normal familial right-handed males, and the relationship between spatial ability and various performance patterns was examined. The forms were presented 2 deg in the left or right visual field. After a 10-sec delay, the subject decided whether or not a form exposed in central vision was the same as the stimulus. Incomplete lateralization of function appeared to be supported by the finding of no field differences. An alternative explanation was discussed since visual field superiority was significantly correlated with WAIS Block Design scores scaled for age, females with relatively low scores showing a right visual field superiority and females with relatively high scores showing a left visual field superiority. The experiment was repeated with 30 familial right-handed males. A significant right visual field superiority was obtained, but visual field superiorities were not correlated with measures of visuo-spatial or verbal ability.     

WISC short forms with emotionally disturbed children

The complete WISC protocols of 100 emotionally disturbed children were rescored according to 30 selected-subtest and 1 selected-item methodologies and then compared for their correspondence to the standard form. High correlations between all of the short forms and the standard WISC were obtained. However, 16 of the selected-subtest short forms and the selected-item short form resulted in a significantly different mean than the standard. In addition, all short forms resulted in a high percentage of individuals changing IQ classification. Results are interpreted as indicating the inappropriateness of short forms with emotionally disturbed children when individual scores are of prime interest.     

Changes in sexist attitudes toward women during introductory women's and men's studies courses

Sexism toward women scores of university students at the beginning of an introductory women's and men's studies (gender studies) course were compared with sexism levels of the same students at the end of the course and with sexism levels of controls. Differences in sexism levels associated with Bem's sex role categories were investigated. Sexism levels among students in every category, except undifferentiated, were significantly lower at the end of the course, while controls showed no pre/post differences. As expected, males were higher than females both at pretest and at posttest, and sexism in both sex groups decreased significantly by equivalent amounts; but androgynous males in the introductory course were lower in sexism than sex-typed males and androgynous females were lower than sex-typed females. Undifferentiated subjects decreased in sexism least during the course, and cross-typed and androgynous males decreased most. The relationship of sexism to several additional variables not included in formal hypotheses also is discussed. These variables were age, religion, ethnicity, SES, and grade earned in the gender studies course.     

Computer administration of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test to young children

Computer-controlled administration of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test to children between the ages of 4 and 13 years was shown to be feasible without the presence of a live examiner. Test-retest correlation coefficients were obtained in the range from .54 to .74 and were not significantly different from those obtained with manual administration in the PPVT standardization sample. Practice effects and IQ differences between the two forms of the test were nonsignificant.     

Teasing Experiences,Interpersonal Sensitivity,Self-Schema and Psychological Distress in Youth: an Exploratory Study

The present study as aimed at exploring peer victimization (teasing) experiences, interpersonal sensitivity, self-schemas and psychological distress in youth. The sample consisted of 231 male and female participants who met specified criteria. Participants completed The Teasing Questionnaire-Revised, Teasing Checklist, Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure, General Health Questionnaire- 28 and Self- Schema Questionnaire. In addition, an open ended question was included to obtain data on teasing experiences. The results showed that the appearance related teasing was reported to be the highest, with more females than males reporting teasing experiences on this domain. Teasing experiences in the domains of performance, social behavior, family and appearance were positively related to psychological distress. Interpersonal sensitivity and self-schema were positively correlated with distress and there was a significant difference between distressed and non-distressed participants on these measures. On IPSM, the need for approval was higher in females whereas fragile inner self was higher in males. Self-efficacy on Self Schema Questionnaire (SSQ), Separation Anxiety (IPSM), Social behavior (TQ) and Teasing Checklist were found to be significant predictors of psychological distress, accounting for 29 % of the variation in psychological distress. Teasing experiences is a significant predisposing factor for psychological distress. Our findings have important clinical implications in understanding early teasing experiences in the development of psychological and emotional disorders.     

Sex-role orientation and psychological adjustment: Implications for the masculinity model

The present study tested the theory that masculine persons are as favorably adjusted psychologically as androgynous persons. Grouped on the basis of Bem Sex Role Inventory scores, androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated college males and females were compared on MMPI, self-efficacy, and assertiveness measures. Strong support was obtained for superior adjustment of masculine males and females. A factor analysis was performed to elucidate the nature of the Masculinity scale, and it suggested that masculinity is related to assertiveness and self-efficacy rather than to the absence of maladjustment.     

The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSORF): A Validation Study on Iranian Muslim Patients Undergoing Dialysis

The Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSORF) is an often used and validated scale that is uncommonly utilized in culturally diverse populations. The purpose of this research investigation was to adapt the SCSORF for use among Iranian Muslim patients undergoing dialysis and to examine the reliability and validity of the scale among this population. A total of 428 patients (228 females, 200 males, M age = 52.2 years, SD = 10) were selected from five dialysis center in Tehran and Qazvin, Iran. A comprehensive forward–backward translation system was used for cross-cultural translation. Patients completed a baseline questionnaire obtaining demographic and clinical information as well as the SCSORF, the Age Universal Religious Orientation Scale (AUROS), the religious life inventory (RLI), and the Duke University religion index (DUREL). 2 weeks later, patients were asked to complete the SCSORF once again. Reliability of the SCSORF was examined using internal consistency and test-rest reliability. Convergent validity and factor structure using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were also examined. Cronbach’s α for the single construct of the SCSORF was 0.89 with adequate test–retest reliability measured over a 2 week period. SCSORF scores were significantly correlated with AUROS, RLI and the DUREL. The EFA generated a single factor solution for the SCSORF while these results were confirmed by the CFA in an independent sample. Findings demonstrated that the SCSORF has favorable reliability, convergent validity, and divergent validity among Iranian Muslim patients undergoing dialysis and is recommended for use by clinicians (e.g., nephrologists) to measure strength of religious faith among patients.     

HyperCard administration of a block-design task

HyperCard (Atkinson, 1987) is a new development environment for the Macintosh that shows promise for use in psychological research and testing. In this paper, we discuss the development of HyperCard stackware with which a block-design task similar to that of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) can be administered. The reliability and validity of the computerized block-design task was evaluated by administering both the computerized task and the WAIS-R subtest to college undergraduates. Results indicated that the computerized task’s reliability compared favorably with that of the WAIS-R subtest. Validity coefficients were equivocal; although an elapsed-time measure showed moderate correlation between the tasks, the numbers of designs correctly completed in each condition were not significantly correlated.     

Assessing Psychometric Properties of the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale (SRES) with African Americans

The Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale (SRES) is an instrument reported to be both reliable and valid. SRES was normed primarily on a Caucasian population, and there is little research on its psychometric properties with other ethnic groups. SRES' abbreviated version (BB) was administered to 148 African American men and women. There were no significant differences found between the norming sample and the study's sample. However, significant differences were found between African American men and women at the .01 level with African American women having a more egalitarian attitude. Further research should administer the SRES to a larger, more heterogenous African American sample to further support the psychometric findings of this study. The SRES should also be studied with other ethnic groups.     

Mastery motivation in boys and girls: The role of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation

This research tested the hypothesis that the importance of adult approval and feedback for females relative to males would render girls of elementary school age more likely to develop an extrinsic orientation in comparison to boys. Using S. Harter's Scale of Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation [(1981), “A New Self-Report Scale of Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivational Orientation in the Classroom: Motivational and Informational Components,” Developmental Psychology Vol. 17, pp. 300–312], the data supported this hypothesis. Because of the assumed differential importance of controlling feedback from adults for females relative to males, a second study examined girls' and boys' preference for challenge as a function of adult controlling feedback and children's motivational orientation. The pattern of data supported the hypothesis that girls relative to boys show differential preferences for challenge, depending on the presence of type of adult feedback and motivational orientation in girls.     

Gender differences in depression in college students

Although there is much evidence indicating that females report more depressive symptoms on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) relative to males, virtually no research has examined or reported gender differences on several other measures tapping negative affect—namely, the Expanded Attributional Styles Questionnaire (EASQ) and the Selves Questionnaire. Our first study examined gender differences on both the BDI and EASQ, and found that females reported more depressive symptoms and a more maladaptive attributional style than males. In our second study, the data revealed that, again, females were found to have a more maladaptive attributional style than males. In addition, on the Selves Questionnaire, there was a significant discrepancy between actual and ideal self for females, but not for males. When delineating most frequently used ideal categories, the data revealed that females were more likely than males to report greater strivings for ideal attributes relevant to interpersonal relationships and body image/attractiveness, whereas males reported more ideal strivings for intelligence. These data suggest some content areas in which females and males differ with regard to “traits” to which they aspire, and which may produce dejection and negative affect if not attained.     

Secondary attachments and adolescent self concept

This study examined the popular notion that crushes or secondary attachments to celebrity figures are an important aspect of self-concept development during adolescence. In a repeated measures design, 79 male and female 5th, 8th, and 11th graders and college sophomores completed a set of personality scales, first describing themselves and later, describing the favorite celebrity. Repeated measures multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) analysis of self-object congruence revealed no significant main or interaction effects for the type of attachment, gender, or age of subject. Significant within subject effects were obtained for the repeated measures factor (self-object congruence). Overall, students perceived their attachment objects to be more agentic, yet less expressive and emotionally vulnerable than themselves. MANOVA analyses indicated that males and older students perceived their attachment objects to be higher in agency than expressivity, whereas females and younger students perceived their attachment objects to be higher in expressivity than agency. These data indicate that the function served by secondary attachments in the development of self-concept may be quite similar for adolescent males and females.     

Perceptual differences in gender ideals among heterosexual and homosexual males and females

The relationship between sexual oreintation (heterosexuality vs. homosexuality) and perceptions of self, ideal male, and ideal female was investigated. Using the Androgyny scale of the Bex Sex Role Inventory [S. L. Bem, “The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1974, 42(2), 155–162] data were analyzed for 144 male and female subjects. The results indicated that homosexual, compared to heterosexual, subjects were least likely to stereotype their three perceptions, yet showed a significant difference between their perceived self and their same-sex ideals. Moreover, homosexual females were the only group to show a significant difference between their perceptions of the ideal male and ideal female, and to categorize all their perceptions within an androgynous range. Furthermore, they were least likely to utilize traditional sex roles in organizing their perceptions. Finally, the homosexual males, although not as extreme as heterosexual males, still maintain a slight tendency to stereotype their perception of an ideal male.     

Continuous self-recording of epigastric pain with two rating scales: Compliance,authenticity, reliability,and sensitivity

The present study compared two self-recording scales: VAS (Visual Analogue Scale) and DIBS (Duration, Intensity, Behavior Scale) with respect to compliance, authenticity, sensitivity, and reliability using a population of 32 patients with chronic epigastric pain. Compliance, authenticity, and sensitivity data revealed no significant differences between the two scales. With respect to reliability, high temporal stability coefficients were found for pain intensity over a 2-day period, for pain duration, and for a pain index calculated from DIBS. DIBS pain intensity data showed a greater temporal stability than VAS. Since DIBS yields more clinically useful information without suffering deficits in compliance, authenticity, or reliability, it appears to be a preferable instrument for monitoring chronic pain.     

Effects of Marital Distress on Turkish Adolescents’ Psychological Adjustment

This research explores the effects of parental marital distress on Turkish adolescents’ psychological adjustment, as mediated by adolescents’ perceptions of maternal and paternal acceptance–rejection. This issue has generated considerable interest within the United States, but only recently internationally. The study draws from a sample of 180 12- through 18-year-old Turkish adolescents (94 females and 86 males; mean age of 16 years) and their parents. Assessments of the level of husbands’ and wives’ marital distress were made using the Turkish language version of the Intimate Partner Acceptance–Rejection/Control Questionnaire IPAR/CQ. Adolescents’ perceptions of the level of parental acceptance were made using the mother and father forms of the Child Parental Acceptance–Rejection/Control Questionnaire. Adolescents’ psychological adjustment was assessed using the child version of the Personality Assessment Questionnaire. Mediation analyses revealed that adolescents’ perceptions of both maternal and paternal acceptance mediated the relationship between the adolescents’ (both sons’ and daughters’) psychological adjustment and wives’ perceptions of their husbands’ acceptance. Thus, the spillover hypothesis was partially supported as was one of the central postulates of parental acceptance–rejection theory.     

Sex stereotypes: Issues of change in the 1970s

A sample of 128 college males and females rated a typical and desirable man or woman on 54 items taken from the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Comparisons of the ratings of a typical man versus a typical woman yielded significant differences (p<.01) on 53 of the 54 items. Thus, stereotypes of the sexes apparently remained strong during the 1970s. Comparisons of the ratings of a desirable man versus desirable woman yielded significant differences on only 12 of the 54 items. These results are interpreted as reflecting a difference between stereotypes (of the typical person) and attitudes (about desirable characteristics). While atttitudes may have changed in the 1970s, stereotypes remained remarkably stable.