CHANGES IN TEST CHARACTERISTICS AS A FUNCTION OF LEARNING OF THE OBJECT-TASK

M ikkonen V. Changes in test characteristics as a function of learning of the object-task. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1972, 13 , 306–313.—Two verbal learning experiments, one consisting of six free recall trials, the other of six recognitions, are analysed as performance tests in order to follow the changes in test characteristics with increasing mean performance. In general, the items in the tasks form more consistent tests with greater degree of learning; coefficient alpha as a measure of reliability improves from the level of 0.02–0.50 to that of 0.70–0.85. Internal consistency can further be increased by item selection especially at low levels of performance. Practical implications of the results are discussed and a few recommendations presented.     

CHANGES IN REPEATED REPRODUCTION OF WEIGHT AS A FUNCTION OF ADAPTATION LEVEL

The retention of memorized weights was repeatedly tested by the reproduction method, the subject's state of adaptation for weight being systematically changed between the tests. The reproduction scores were found to vary as approximately linear functions of the adaptation level. This relationship was unaffected by changes in the degree of learning of the memorized weight and in several other variables. The 'anchoring' and retention of weight, and different indicators of adaptation level, are discussed.     

CHANGES IN REPEATED REPRODUCTION OF PITCH AS A FUNCTION OF INTERPOLATED STIMULI

The retention of memorized pitches was tested repeatedly by systematically changing pitches being interpolated between the successive reproduction tests. The reproductions changed regularly in the direction of the interpolated stimuli. The relationship between the reproduction scores and the cps-means of the interpolated pitch-series could be described fairly accurately by power functions. Some connections between the present results and the results of previous experiments on memory and scaling are discussed.     

STIMULUS CONTROL IN THE CLASSROOM AS A FUNCTION OF THE BEHAVIOR REINFORCED

Eight fifth- and sixth-grade children with behavior problems performed in a classroom under three conditions: (1) unreinforced baseline, (2) reinforcement for being on task, and (3) reinforcement for the accuracy and rate of math problems solved. The teacher was absent for a portion of the class session under each of these conditions. In the teacher's absence, on-task behavior declined markedly and disruption markedly increased, regardless of the reinforcement condition in operation. In addition, the teacher's absence resulted in fewer problems attempted and decreased accuracy. However, the extent to which the children became disruptive was reduced and the number of problems attempted increased when reinforcement was contingent on academic accuracy and rate, instead of being contingent on being on task. The results suggest that by providing contingencies for the products of a child's classroom activities, rather than for being on task, the child will become more independent of the teacher's presence, and more under the control of the academic materials.     

THE FUNCTION OF FUTURE ORIENTATION AS A DETERMINANT OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR IN STEP-PATH THEORY OF ACTION

Step-path theory of action is used to conceptualize future orientation (FO) as anticipated path characteristics and to derive its function. Study 1 finds that stories written to FO sentences are significantly higher on n Achievement when referring to a young person, while stories written to past orientation sentences tend toward higher scores when referring to an old person. Study 2 finds that extremes on chronological age tend to accentuate these trends. Study 3 supports the “multiplicative rule” for the combination of subjective probabilities of success (Ps) along a contingent path for group data. Individual data show that the predicted accentuation of achievement motivation is mediated by a decrease in path length for nonmultipliers of Ps (time FO), and by an increase in path length for multipliers of Ps (task FO). Path Ps also influences the effects of time and task FO.     

VERBAL BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF APPREHENSION AND SOCIAL CONTEXT

This study examined the effect of high and low communication apprehension in conjunction with social and personal settings upon verbal behavior. Step wise multiple discriminant analysis of the data indicated a linear combination of language indices (number of syllables, Noun-Verb/Adjective-Adverb ratio, and phrase repetitions) which discriminated between the high apprehensive-personal setting group and the remaining three groups. Results are discussed relative to theoretical projections and the potential for sensitivity toward communication behavior being operative within the communication apprehension framework.     

CHANGES IN STUDENT AND TEACHER RESPONSES IN OBSERVED AND GENERALIZED SETTINGS AS A FUNCTION OF SUPERVISOR OBSERVATIONS

Two studies are reported in which the effects of supervisor observations of teachers' performance rate and accuracy on both teachers' and severely handicapped students' behaviors were compared with baseline supervisor observations that did not specify rate and accuracy feedback. The latter observation procedure (nonspecific feedback) was more typical of the existing practices of school supervisors. The dependent variables for the teachers were rate and accuracy of teacher behaviors to student responses in individualized instructional settings involving discrete trials or task-analysis steps. The dependent variables for students were the rates of correct and incorrect responding to teacher presentations during the supervisor observation periods. Both studies used a multiple baseline design. The results of Study 1 showed that there were educationally significant changes in teacher and, in turn, student performance as a result of the use of the rate and accuracy procedure. The results of Study 2 replicated those of Study 1 while correcting limitations of Study 1. This latter study also demonstrated that the observation effects of the procedure generalized to teacher performance throughout the day. The results are discussed in terms of the efficiency and cost effectiveness of the procedure to train, monitor, and reinforce teacher effectiveness.     

BINOCULAR RIVALRY AS A FUNCTION OF INCONGRUITY IN MEANING

This is the third of a series of three papers dealing with semantics of facial expressions. The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether the ratings of two stimulus inputs on semantic differential scales would predict the experience of binocular rivalry. The stimuli used were five full-face photographs of a man expressing different emotions. These stimuli were rated on the semantic differential and all possible pairs of these stimuli were used as stereograms. It was hypothesized that semantically incongruous stimulus inputs would lead to binocular rivalry and that congruous ones would lead to an absence of rivalry. The hypothesis was supported.     

SOCIOMETRIC AND DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOR AS A FUNCTION OF FOUR TYPES OF TOKEN REINFORCEMENT PROGRAMS1

Children in a first-grade classroom were divided into four groups. Baseline measures of disruptive classroom behavior were taken on a well-behaved and disruptive child in each group. Following baseline, four types of token economies were simultaneously introduced and rotated every 10 days within a Latin Square design. The token economies were: (1) individual reinforcement determined by individual performance; (2) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the most disruptive child; (3) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of the least disruptive child; (4) group reinforcement determined by the behavior of a randomly chosen child. The token economies were compared on their effectiveness in changing target behavior, preference by the targets, ease of use, and cost. Additionally, sociometric responses were taken on questions of responsibility, friendship, and funniness. Results showed a significant decrease of inappropriate behavior for the disruptive children and no difference between the effectiveness of the four types of token economies in producing behavior change. However, there were other differences that indicated that the system in which group reinforcement was determined by a randomly selected child would be desirable for most teachers. Results also showed changes in the sociometric status of the disruptive children. As predicted, disruptive children were rated as more responsible when they were in the group reinforcement determined by the most disruptive child in the group token economy. Using behavior modification techniques indirectly to change sociometric status is suggested as offering a new potential technique for behavior change agents.     

TRANSFER OF BEHAVIORAL FUNCTION AS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN TREATMENT RELAPSE

When relapse occurs following successful treatment to reduce problem behavior, it is often attributed to inconsistent implementation of maintenance programs. Although less likely, another potential cause for relapse is a change in the behavior's maintaining contingency over time. To examine this possibility, additional assessment was conducted with 4 individuals who were rereferred to a day-treatment program due to recurrence of their self-injurious behavior (SIB) 2 months to 2 years following successful treatment. In each case, the original treatment had been developed and implemented based on the outcome of functional analysis assessments. For 1 subject, results of a second functional analysis were consistent with those from the original assessment, indicating that the function of her SIB had remained unchanged. For the other 3 subjects, results of the second assessment suggested that their SIB had acquired new or additional functions. These findings indicate that factors other than program inconsistency can lead to relapse, and that clinical revaluation for such cases should include a current functional analysis to determine if new treatment components are needed.     

STRATEGY MODIFICATION IN CONCEPT LEARNING AS A FUNCTION OF INTRADIMENSIONAL VARIABILITY

LINDAHL, M.-B. Strategy modification in concept learning as a function of intradimensional variability. Scand. J. Psychol. , 1971, 12, 90–98.–60 subjects took part in a concept-learning-like task, where the independent variable was the intradimensional variability of the instances and the dependent variable was the type of strategy adopted by the subjects. Two main types of strategy were used by the subjects: one based on subtle cues and in principle requiring only one instance to lead to solution (conceptual-deductive strategy) and one based on salient cues and requiring a number of instances for solution (perceptual-inductive strategy). Adoptions of a conceptual-deductive type of strategy were shown to be significantly more frequent, when the variability was large than when it was small. It was concluded that the intradimensional variability of the instances influenced the subjects' choice of strategy in a seemingly rational way. This type of strategy modification was considered to be in line with theories describing concept learning as a sequence of, in principle, rational decisions.     

ESCAPE AS A FACTOR IN THE AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR OF TWO RETARDED CHILDREN

This study sought to identify some of the variables controlling the severely aggressive behavior of two retarded children. In Experiment 1, each child was presented with several demand and nondemand situations. Aggression was frequent in the demand situations and rare in the nondemand situations. When a stimulus correlated with the termination of demands was introduced, aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiment 2, for one child, a variety of preferred reinforcers was introduced into the demand situation contingent on correct responding. Aggression abruptly decreased to a low level. Experiments 3 and 4 involved the second child. In Experiment 3, this child was permitted, in one condition, to leave the demand situation if he emitted a nonaggressive response. Aggression decreased to a low level. In Experiment 4, he was prevented, in one condition, from leaving the demand situation in spite of high levels of aggression. Aggression fell to a near zero level. In Experiments 3 and 4, he was permitted, in several conditions, to leave the demand situation following aggressive behavior. Aggression increased to a high level. The results suggested that: (1) aggression can sometimes function as an escape response; and (2) escape-motivated aggression can be controlled by: (a) introducing strongly preferred reinforcers to attenuate the aversiveness of the demand situation; (b) strengthening an alternative, nonaggressive escape response; or (c) using an escape-extinction procedure.     

PREDICTIVE EFFICIENCY AS A FUNCTION OF AMOUNT OF INFORMATION

The effect of changing the amount of information on judges' predictive efficiency in a clinical prediction task was studied. Thirty judges predicted 30 students' average achievement scores on the basis of different amount of test data. One group of judges had information about the intercorrelations among the tests and the ecologkal validity of the tests. Another group of judges had only informahion about which tests were used. The predictive efficiency was not a monotonically increasing function of amount of test data. The most marked result was that the relative predictive efficiency decreased from four to six tests in both groups.     

ATTITUDES TOWARD PROSTITUTION AS A FUNCTION OF ATTITUDES TOWARD FEMINISM IN COLLEGE STUDENTS

Eighty-nine male and female undergraduates completed the Attitudes toward Feminism Scale and the author-devised Attitudes Toward Prostitution Scale, which contained five factors. Profeminist attitudes were related to three out of five factors. Respondents scoring in a profeminist direction were more likely to view prostitution as reflecting exploitation and subordination of women, less likely to believe women become prostitutes out of economic necessity, and less likely to approve of decriminalization and legalization of prostitution. Gender differences also appeared that were not explained by differences in profeminist attitudes: women were more likely than men to disagree with decriminalization and legalization efforts and were more likely to view prostitution as reflecting exploitation and subordination.     

ELECTRODERMAL RESPONSES AS A FUNCTION OF QUANTIFIED THREAT

N iemelá , P. Electrodermal responses as a function of quantified threat. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1969, 10 , 19–56.—Threat was quantified by means of a 20 sec anticipation condition where the subject knew the exact time for the expected shock in advance, as well as the exact probability of receiving a shock. The probabilities used where 0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00. The electrodermal responses (the amplitude of the skin resistance response, the amplitude of the skin potential response, and the number of electrodermal responses) during the anticipation period were found to vary systematically as functions of the probability of shock, and as functions of the time elapsed from the beginning of the experiment.     

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF BANDING AS A FUNCTION OF TEST RELIABILITY

Cascio, Outtz, Zedeck, and Goldstein (1991) described the application of a number of test score banding procedures in personnel selection. Equations are developed illustrating the relationship between the width of test score bands and test reliability. When reliability is moderate to low, bands are likely to be larger than the standard deviation of the test, and are likely to include a large proportion of the applicant pool. The relationships between band widths and the differences between higher scoring and lower scoring groups are also examined. When the band is smaller than the differences between groups (which may happen when highly reliable tests are used), banding may not by itself prove effective as a means of reducing the adverse impact of tests, even when banding systems that maximize opportunities for members of the lower scoring group are used.     

LOUDNESS AS A FUNCTION OF THE DURATION OF AUDITORY STIMULATION

The perceived loudness of a 1000 c/s tone was measured by a direct scaling method under different conditions of intensity (19–35 db) and duration (50–500 msec) of stimulation. It was found that loudness grows as a logarithmic function of stimulus duration; the relation was verified for ten individual subjects and four levels of intensity. In addition, the relation between temporal threshold and level of intensity was tentatively described.