Understanding the limits of self‐control: Positive affect moderates the impact of task switching on consecutive self‐control performance

Performing consecutive self‐control tasks typically leads to deterioration in self‐control performance. This effect can be explained within the strength model of self‐control or within a cognitive control perspective. Both theoretical frameworks differ in their predictions with regard to the impact of affect and task characteristics on self‐control deterioration within a two‐task paradigm. Whereas the strength model predicts decrements in self‐control performance whenever both tasks require a limited resource, under a cognitive control perspective, decrements should only occur when people switch to a different response conflict in the second task. Moreover, only the cognitive control model predicts an interaction between task switching and positive affect. In the present research, we investigated this interaction within a two‐task paradigm and found evidence that favored a cognitive control interpretation of the results. Positive affect only benefitted consecutive self‐control performance if response conflicts in the two tasks were different (resisting sweets followed by a Stroop task). If they were the same (two consecutive Stroop tasks), positive affect impaired self‐control performance. These effects were partially replicated in the second study that also examined negative affect, which did not affect self‐control performance. We conclude that drawing on cognitive control models could add substantially to research on self‐control. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mirror Self‐Recognition and Self‐Identification

That great apes are the only primates to recognise their reflections is often taken to show that they are self‐aware—however, there has been much recent debate about whether the self‐awareness in question is psychological or bodily self‐awareness. This paper argues that whilst self‐recognition does not require psychological self‐awareness, to claim that it requires only bodily self‐awareness would leave something out. That is that self‐recognition requires ‘objective self‐awareness’—the capacity for first person thoughts like ‘that's me’, which involve self‐identification and so are vulnerable to error through misidentification. This objective self‐awareness is distinct from bodily or psychological self‐awareness, requires cognitive sophistication and provides the beginnings of a more conceptual self‐representation which might play a role in planning, mental time travel and theory of mind.     

A depleted mind feels inefficacious: Ego‐depletion reduces self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control

Recent research has found that ego‐depletion undermines self‐control by motivating cognition that justifies conservation of mental resource. One potential cognitive mechanism is reduction of self‐efficacy. Specifically, we propose that ego‐depletion might demotivate self‐control by making people believe that they are inefficacious in exerting self‐control in subsequent tasks. Three experiments support the proposal. First, we demonstrated that (a) ego‐depletion can reduce self‐efficacy to exert further control (Experiments 1 to 3) and (b) the temporary reduction of self‐efficacy mediates the effect of depletion on self‐control performance (Experiment 2). Finally, we found that (c) these effects are only observed among participants who endorse a limited (versus non‐limited) theory of willpower and are, hence, more motivated to conserve mental resources (Experiment 3). Taken together, the present findings show that decrease in self‐efficacy to exert further self‐control is an important cognitive process that explains how ego‐depletion demotivates self‐control. This research also contributes to the recent discussion of the psychological processes underlying ego‐depletion.     

“This doesn’t look too hard”: A mixed methods exploration of self‐efficacy and sources of self‐efficacy information in a novel puzzle task

Studies have found self‐efficacy to be a key predictor of performance across domains (e.g., Feltz & Magyar, 2006; Judge & Bono, 2001). However, few studies have examined how self‐efficacy and the sources of self‐efficacy information change over time, and most of these studies utilized tasks participants were familiar or experienced with. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how participants weighed and interpreted the sources of self‐efficacy information during initial learning of a novel puzzle task. A secondary aim was to explore differences between student‐athletes and non‐athletes in the sources of self‐efficacy information. Sixty‐three college students completed measures of self‐efficacy, sources of self‐efficacy information, and performed trials of the Tower of Hanoi Puzzle, a wooden puzzle solving test requiring participants to move wooden pieces from one point to another in a specific order. Quantitative results revealed hierarchical performance self‐efficacy for the number of moves required and time required to solve the puzzle significantly changed across the four trials. Qualitative results indicated verbal and imaginal experiences were the two most prominent sources of participants’ self‐efficacy information on trial 1, but by trial 4 mastery experiences and verbal information were the most prominent sources, also suggesting that that the influence of self‐efficacy sources may change over time. Implications for practitioners to assist individuals with novel cognitive tasks are discussed.     

Self‐disclosure in computer‐mediated communication: The role of self‐awareness and visual anonymity

Three studies examined the notion that computer‐mediated communication (CMC) can be characterised by high levels of self‐disclosure. In Study One, significantly higher levels of spontaneous self‐disclosure were found in computer‐mediated compared to face‐to‐face discussions. Study Two examined the role of visual anonymity in encouraging self‐disclosure during CMC. Visually anonymous participants disclosed significantly more information about themselves than non‐visually anonymous participants. In Study Three, private and public self‐awareness were independently manipulated, using video‐conferencing cameras and accountability cues, to create a 2 × 2 design public self‐awareness (high and low)×private self‐awareness (high and low). It was found that heightened private self‐awareness, when combined with reduced public self‐awareness, was associated with significantly higher levels of spontaneous self‐disclosure during computer‐mediated communication. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nothing or the opposite: intersecting terror management and objective self‐awareness

The human capacity for self‐awareness allows people to envision their eventual death and thus creates the potential for debilitating anxiety. Terror management research has shown that self‐awareness exacerbates the experience of mortality salience. I suggest that self‐awareness alone can induce mortality salience through dialectical thinking. If constructs include a concept and its opposite, then focusing on one aspect should also increase awareness of the opposite. Focusing on the existing object self should thus lead to the recognition of the non‐existent self that is implied. In study 1, participants experienced one of two self‐awareness manipulations (exposure to a mirror, perceiving the self as distinctive) or no manipulation; mortality salience was measured using a death‐relevant word completion task. Both self‐awareness conditions reported significantly higher mortality salience than the control condition. In study 2, participants exposed to their reflection reported increased death salience and life salience (as measured by death‐ and life‐relevant word completion tasks) than a control group, which directly suggests that self‐awareness leads people to dialectically consider opposing facets of the self. Terror management and objective self‐awareness theories might thus be more intimately tied than was previously thought. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The watching eyes phenomenon: The role of a sense of being seen and public self‐awareness

In recent years, a growing number of researchers have examined the watching eyes phenomenon (i.e., increased prosocial and decreased antisocial behavior when subtle watching eyes are present in the environment). Somewhat surprisingly, the questions of how and under what conditions subtle cues of being watched operate have been unanswered so far. The present contribution addresses this research gap. In two studies, we document that (a) subtle cues of being watched induce a sense of being seen and (b) chronic public self‐awareness moderates the watching eyes phenomenon in that specifically individuals with strong chronic public self‐awareness show more prosocial behavior under conditions of watching eyes. The applicability of subtle cues of being watched in research on social presence is discussed.     

Losing a self‐expanding relationship: Implications for the self‐concept

Previous research suggests that new relationships expand the self‐concept. The present research applies concepts from the self‐expansion model to examine the conditions under which relationship dissolution may influence the self‐concept. We hypothesized that the more expansion provided by a relationship predissolution, the greater the contraction of the working self‐concept postdissolution, and that this pattern would remain when controlling for predissolution closeness. These hypotheses were tested using recall of relationship qualities for recently dissolved relationships (Studies 1 and 2), as well as with a priming experiment (Study 3). The findings over the 3 studies supported both hypotheses. Those with higher levels of self‐expansion in predissolution relationships showed more detrimental impact on their working self‐concept postdissolution, even after controlling for predissolution closeness.     

Influence of achievement goals and self‐efficacy on students' self‐regulation and performance

It is widely admitted that low self‐efficacy has a detrimental impact on the functioning and performance of a person mainly concerned with performance goals but has no impact when a person is mainly concerned with learning goals (Dweck, 1986 ). However, results from both correlational and experimental studies are divergent. Since these studies examined very few indicators of participants' cognitive functioning, they may have failed to detect those aspects that could be more vulnerable to a negative impact of the combination of performance goals and low self‐efficacy. Another concern is the lack of most studies to clearly distinguish the type of performance goal examined, particularly the performance‐avoidance versus the performance‐approach goal. In the current study, we decided to focus on performance‐approach and learning goals in order to examine how self‐efficacy intervenes in their effects on participants' self‐regulation and performance on a cognitive task. One hundred and forty participants (85 females and 55 males) were examined. They were randomly assigned either to the learning or the performance‐approach goals condition. In each condition, half of the participants received feedback aimed at inducing either high or low self‐efficacy beliefs with regard to the task prior to executing it aloud. Examination of participants' verbal reports, direct observation of some of their behaviours while solving the task, and responses to a retrospective questionnaire allowed the assessment of several indicators of their self‐regulation and performance. As already reported by many studies, self‐efficacy influenced various aspects of participants' self‐regulation and performance. However, contrary to Dweck's hypothesis ( 1986 ), when interaction effects between self‐efficacy and goals were observed, they always involved learning instead of performance‐approach goals. Findings of this study suggest that the nature of the goal might not matter as much as its personal significance or value.     

The effect of supervisory feedback,self‐recording,and graphic feedback on trainer behavior during one‐to‐one training

The effectiveness of supervisory feedback, self‐recording, and graphic feedback on trainer behavior during one‐to‐one training sessions was assessed with three trainers, and three students with mental retardation. Supervisory feedback consisted of a supervisor interrupting the course of the training if an error occurred, administering appraisal when accurate trainer behavior occurred, and prompting the trainer to avoid errors. Following this, self‐recording and graphic feedback were in effect. During the latter condition, the trainer was instructed to record her own behavior, to graph the data following each training session, and to set a goal to increase her performance. Data were collected in a quasi non‐concurrent multiple baseline design across dyads of trainers and students. The results showed a statistically significant increase of accurate trainer behavior during supervisory feedback, which was maintained during the condition of self‐recording and graphic feedback. Maintenance of trainer behavior was recorded during follow‐up. The trainers rated supervisory feedback as more acceptable than self‐recording and graphic feedback. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Re‐examining the effects of noncontingent success on self‐handicapping behaviour

Background: Self‐handicapping refers to the practice on the part of certain individuals to handicap their performance when poor performance is likely to reveal low ability. Noncontingent success (feedback that is inflated relative to performance) is more likely to promote self‐handicapping behaviour than noncontingent failure (failure feedback based on false or misleading information). However, the reasons for the differing effects of these forms of performance feedback on self‐handicapping behaviour remain obscure. Aims: The present study sought an explanation for the differing effects of these forms of performance feedback, testing the assumption that students high in self‐handicapping behaviour would react more negatively following noncontingent success, reporting more unstable and external attributions, higher anxiety, and a greater propensity to claim handicaps than those low in self‐handicapping behaviour. No differences were expected on any of these measures for high relative to low self‐handicappers following either noncontingent failure or success. Sample: Participants were 72 undergraduate students, divided equally between high and low self‐handicapping groups. Method: High and low self‐handicappers were assigned to one of three performance feedback conditions: noncontingent failure, success and noncontingent success. High and low self‐handicappers were then given an opportunity to claim handicaps prior to completing measures of attributions and state anxiety. Subsequently, they completed 12 remote associate tasks, serving as an assessment of performance, and 16 unicursal tasks, assessing practice effort. Results: Following noncontingent success, high self‐handicappers reported greater anxiety, more unproductive attributions and claimed more handicaps than low self‐handicappers. However no differences were evident for high and low self‐handicappers following either noncontingent failure or success. High self‐handicappers also performed poorly on the remote associates tasks and reduced practice effort on the unicursal tasks.     

Regulatory fit and cognitive performance: the interactive effect of chronic and situationally induced self‐regulatory mechanisms on test performance

Two studies examined the impact of chronic and situational self‐regulatory mechanisms on cognitive test performance. In both studies, test performance was enhanced when situationally induced regulatory mechanisms matched the chronic self‐regulatory focus of the test taker. These results support the regulatory fit hypothesis put forward in regulatory focus theory and point to the importance of compatibility between chronic and situationally induced self‐regulatory states when it comes to cognitive test performance. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐awareness and self‐understanding

In this paper, I critically examine Dan Zahavi's multidimensional account of the self and show how the distinction he makes among “pre‐reflective minimal,” “interpersonal,” and “normative” dimensions of selfhood needs to be refined in order to accommodate what I call “pre‐reflective self‐understanding.” The latter is a normative dimension of selfhood manifest not in reflection and deliberation, but in the habits and style of a person's pre‐reflective absorption in the world. After reviewing Zahavi's multidimensional account and revealing this gap in his explanatory taxonomy, I draw upon Heidegger, Merleau‐Ponty, and Frankfurt in order to sketch an account of pre‐reflective self‐understanding. I end by raising an objection to Zahavi's claim for the primitive and foundational status of pre‐reflective self‐awareness. To carve off self‐awareness from the self's practical immersion in a situation where things and possibilities already matter and draw one to act is to distort the phenomena. A more careful phenomenology of pre‐reflective action shows that pre‐reflective self‐awareness and pre‐reflective self‐understanding are co‐constitutive, both mutually for each other and jointly for everyday experience.     

The effects of self‐explaining when learning with text or diagrams

Self‐explaining is an effective metacognitive strategy that can help learners develop deeper understanding of the material they study. This experiment explored if the format of material (i.e., text or diagrams) influences the self‐explanation effect. Twenty subjects were presented with information about the human circulatory system and prompted to self‐explain; 10 received this information in text and 10 in diagrams. Results showed that students given diagrams performed significantly better on post‐tests than students given text. Diagrams students also generated significantly more self‐explanations that text students. Furthermore, the benefits of self‐explaining were much greater in the diagrams condition. To discover why diagrams can promote the self‐explanation effect, results are interpreted with reference to the multiple differences in the semantic, cognitive and affective properties of the texts and diagrams studied.     

Causal uncertainty,claimed and behavioural self‐handicapping

Background: Causal uncertainty beliefs involve doubts about the causes of events, and arise as a consequence of non‐contingent evaluative feedback: feedback that leaves the individual uncertain about the causes of his or her achievement outcomes. Individuals high in causal uncertainty are frequently unable to confidently attribute their achievement outcomes, experience anxiety in achievement situations and as a consequence are likely to engage in self‐handicapping behaviour. Aims: Accordingly, we sought to establish links between trait causal uncertainty, claimed and behavioural self‐handicapping. Sample: Participants were N=72 undergraduate students divided equally between high and low causally uncertain groups. Method: We used a 2 (causal uncertainty status: high, low) × 3 (performance feedback condition: success, non‐contingent success, non‐contingent failure) between‐subjects factorial design to examine the effects of causal uncertainty on achievement behaviour. Following performance feedback, participants completed 20 single‐solution anagrams and 12 remote associate tasks serving as performance measures, and 16 unicursal tasks to assess practice effort. Participants also completed measures of claimed handicaps, state anxiety and attributions. Results: Relative to low causally uncertain participants, high causally uncertain participants claimed more handicaps prior to performance on the anagrams and remote associates, reported higher anxiety, attributed their failure to internal, stable factors, and reduced practice effort on the unicursal tasks, evident in fewer unicursal tasks solved. Conclusions: These findings confirm links between trait causal uncertainty and claimed and behavioural self‐handicapping, highlighting the need for educators to facilitate means by which students can achieve surety in the manner in which they attribute the causes of their achievement outcomes.     

Dispositional and situational learning goals and children's self‐regulation

Background. Little research has examined interactions between self‐reported dispositional and experimentally manipulated situational group orientations in their effect on self‐regulation. Aims. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of dispositional and situational learning goal orientation on children's self‐efficacy and engagement and persistence at a puzzle task. Sample. A self‐report learning goal orientation scale was completed by 110 children, aged 9–11 years. Fifty‐three children (24 girls) selected to be high and low on the scale participated in the experiment. Method. Half of the children were given instructions designed to evoke learning goals, while the remainder received performance goal instructions. Children attempted a difficult puzzle task on two occasions, when measures were made of self‐regulatory behaviours. Results and conclusions. Children assigned to the learning goal instruction were more likely to persist at the task until the end of the allotted time, displayed more on‐task behaviour and engaged in more autonomous help‐seeking. These effects were more pronounced following the first task, which all children had been unable to complete. Dispositional task orientation did not predict individual differences on these measures. The findings are interpreted in terms of learned helplessness and self‐worth theory.     

Dysfunctional anticipatory thoughts and the self‐handicapping strategy

Self‐handicapping is an anticipatory self‐protective strategy in which individuals create or claim obstacles to success prior to an important performance to excuse potential failure. The present research sought in four studies to document the anticipatory nature of self‐handicapping, examining the role of prefactual (“what if …?”) thoughts in this strategy. Individuals prone to self‐handicap were more likely to generate prefactuals, identifying ways to undermine their performance. Moreover, inducing individuals to consider these thoughts increased self‐handicapping behavior, whereas focusing individuals on ways to improve their performance actually reduced self‐handicapping behavior. Implications of this work for understanding the cognitive processes underlying self‐handicapping behavior and for interventions that seek to minimize this self‐defeating behavior are discussed. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The pursuit of self‐interest and rule breaking in an anonymous situation

The present study examined whether psychological self‐interest would instigate rule breaking in an anonymous situation. In total, 66 individuals were observed whether they would pursue material or psychological self‐interest by breaking existing rules under the cloak of anonymity. Anonymity was defined to minimize accountability for one's behavior, and was strictly manipulated to make all participants equally anonymous during the experiment. Results showed that only participants in the material‐reward condition broke the rules, whereas those in the psychological‐reward condition did not. Also, there was no difference found between the two conditions in subjective feelings of anonymity and public self‐awareness although rule breaking was observed only in the material‐reward condition. Implications for socially undesirable behavior in anonymous situations are discussed.     

Preferences for and evaluation of self‐relevant information depending on the elaboration of the self‐schemata involved

Previous findings have shown that some reactions (e.g. satisfaction with feedback) are guided by self‐enhancement theory, whereas other reactions (e.g. perceived feedback accuracy) have been shown to follow predictions of self‐consistency theory. The Integrative Self‐Schema Model (ISSM) assumes that these effects should be moderated by the elaboration of the self‐schema involved: This assumption was tested in an experimental study: 72 participants received fictitious feedback on different personality dimensions allegedly based on an adjective checklist. This feedback was either consistent with self‐perceptions, more positive than expected, or more negative than expected, and addressed highly elaborated (schematic) or less elaborated (aschematic) personality dimensions. Satisfaction, feedback accuracy and interest in further information were analysed as dependent variables. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for satisfaction and perceived feedback accuracy. A self‐consistency effect regarding perceived feedback accuracy was found only for feedback on schematic dimensions but was attenuated on aschematic dimensions. A self‐enhancement effect regarding satisfaction was found only on aschematic dimensions. This finding was reversed on schematic dimensions. Finally, interest in further information did not follow the predictions made by the ISSM. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social and non‐social measures of cognition for predicting self‐reported and informant‐reported functional outcomes in early psychosis

The main aim of this study was to investigate the individual contributions of neurocognitive and social‐cognitive domains to self‐reported and informant‐reported functional outcome in early psychosis. We also sought to further characterize the nature of cognitive impairments in this sample and explore the interrelationships between the social‐cognitive measures and how they correlate with measures of neurocognition and clinical symptoms. In this study, 70 patients (mean age: 24.1; 87.1% males) with primary psychotic disorder diagnosed in the previous 5 years were assessed on multiple neurocognitive (processing speed, attention, working memory, immediate verbal memory, delayed recall, visual reasoning, inhibition, planning, cognitive flexibility), and social‐cognitive domains (theory of mind (ToM), emotion recognition, attributional style, metacognitive overconfidence) as well as measures of clinical symptoms. Functional outcome was assessed with three self‐reports and two informant‐reports. On average, patients performed one or more SD below healthy controls on measures of delayed recall, ToM and metacognitive overconfidence. Emotion recognition and ToM were intercorrelated and correlated with multiple neurocognitive domains and negative symptoms. Attributional style correlated with positive symptoms. In the context of multiple variables, self‐reported functional outcomes were predicted by attributional style, whereas emotion recognition and immediate verbal memory predicted variance in informant‐reported community functioning. These results support the suggestion of a likely distinction between the predictive factors for self‐reported and informant‐reported functional outcome in early psychosis and suggest that consideration of self‐assessment of functional outcome is critical when attempting to evaluate the effects attributional style has on functional disability.