Is God's call more than audible? A preliminary exploration using a two‐dimensional model of theistic/spiritual beliefs and experiences

Among spiritual individuals, auditory hallucinations (AHs) are often accompanied by positive affectivity (PA) suggesting that such coincidental affective valence might gainfully demark spiritual from comparable non‐spiritual aberrant perceptions. Yet nearly all of the relevant past religiosity/spirituality research has been limited to AHs and/or known groups (Evangelicals, epilepsy patients, etc.). Using a community sample (N = 485), this article explores whether unusual perceptual experiences (UEs) more generally (not simply AHs) together with PA predict participants' self‐reported spirituality. Specifically, a dual marker hypothesis developed from affect attribution theory—in which UE, PA, and their interaction predict spirituality in a non‐additive positive fashion—is proposed and confirmed (even after controlling for socio‐demographics). The estimators reveal that spirituality is disproportionately elevated for high scorers on both predictors. These results are consistent with previous known‐group studies and support recent speculation that the affective–cognitive interpretation of perceptual aberrations might be a key feature of spirituality and one that potentially demarks it from psychosis. Moreover, the correlation between spirituality and PA varies depending upon one's UE level; a result not anticipated by the incumbent positive psychological theory of spirituality.     

The Oneness Beliefs Scale: Connecting Spirituality with Pro‐Environmental Behavior

The inherent unity of all phenomena, or oneness, is a central concept of mysticism, but there have heretofore been no measures of oneness beliefs. We developed the Oneness Beliefs Scale, with spiritual and physical oneness subscales. The spiritual oneness subscale fills a need in the field for a short, reliable measure of spirituality not characterized by the language of traditional Western religiousness. The physical oneness subscale allows researchers to juxtapose spiritual beliefs with a nonspiritual, materialist counterpart. We found that spiritual oneness beliefs were more strongly related to mystic experiences and spirituality than to traditional religiousness. Physical oneness was not strongly associated with either religiousness or spirituality. Both spiritual and physical oneness were positively associated with pro‐environmental attitudes but not with depression, anxiety, or negative affect. Spiritual oneness was a better predictor of pro‐environmental attitudes than was religiousness. Spiritual oneness also predicted donating to a pro‐environmental group, making this to our knowledge the first empirical study to show a positive association between a religion or spirituality measure and observed, rather than self‐reported, pro‐environmental behavior.     

Influence of Counselor Spirituality and Training on Treatment Focus and Self‐Perceived Competence

Spirituality is a potential area of concern for counseling clients. This study presents the empirical results of a survey completed by 572 counselors to determine if counselors' spiritual beliefs, experiences, or training had an impact on their focus of therapy or self‐perceived competence. A counselor's personal spirituality, spiritual experience, and spirituality training did significantly influence treatment focus as well as self‐perceived competence to counsel a client with spiritual concerns.     

Development and Initial Validation of an Implicit Measure of Religiousness‐Spirituality

An implicit measure of religiousness‐spirituality (RS) was constructed and used in two studies. In Study 1, undergraduates completed a Religiousness‐Spirituality Implicit Association Test (RS‐IAT) and several self‐report measures of RS and related constructs (e.g., religious fundamentalism, authoritarianism). Informants rated the participants’ RS. The RS‐IAT was internally consistent. Implicit RS correlated positively with self‐reported RS, spiritual transcendence, spiritual experiences, religious fundamentalism, and intrinsic religiousness. Informant ratings correlated positively with participants’ self‐reported religiousness but not implicit RS. In Study 2, implicit RS accounted for unique variability in self‐reported attitudes toward gay men and lesbian women when controlling for self‐reported religiousness and right‐wing authoritarianism. These findings demonstrate that an implicit measure of trait RS explains some variability in attitudes that self‐report measures do not. An implicit measure of RS could advance the scientific study of religion beyond what is known from self‐report measures.     

Spirituality Among College Freshmen: Relationships to Self‐Esteem,Body Image,and Stress

The authors investigated the relationships between spirituality, body image, self‐esteem, and stress in 204 college freshmen who identified themselves as being highly spiritual. A positive relationship was found between spirituality and self‐esteem. Although self‐esteem was found to be negatively related to stress, spirituality served as a buffer in this relationship. When gender of participants was examined, men and women did not differ in spirituality. Greater spirituality was related to lower body surveillance, an aspect of body image, for men, but it was not related to body image for women. Overall, however, women experienced greater body image dissatisfaction than did men.     

Spiritual Needs and Practices of Counselor Education Students

This study examined the self‐reported value of spirituality, types of spiritual practices, and values of 69 counselor education students. It also examined counseling students’ ideas for how to increase their comfort with incorporating spirituality into counseling practice. Implications for implementing spirituality training in counselor education programs are addressed.     

The Personal Significance of Religiousness and Spirituality in Patients With Schizophrenia

Religiousness and spirituality were examined in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Features and subjective significance are described, and associations with psychopathological phenomena are analyzed. The majority of the patients reported that religiousness and spirituality serve a vital positive influence in their ability to cope with their disorder. This positive influence was observed less among those patients with more negative symptoms. The spiritual experience of a divine presence was a common part of spirituality for our respondents, independent of psychopathology, whereas more extraordinary spiritual experiences were associated with certain psychopathological symptoms. Religious patients ruminated less than nonreligious patients did on existential issues, especially regarding the meaning of life, which, together with self-acceptance, was among the key existential issues for these patients.     

Qualitative Investigation of Student Reflections on a Spiritual/Religious Diversity Experience

Twenty‐six master's‐level counselor education students participated in a spiritual and religious diversity assignment, which involved participation in a spiritual or religious activity for 5 weeks. Participants then discussed these experiences in reflection papers. After analysis of the student papers, the authors identified the following themes: (a) discomfort related to the experience, (b) initial assumptions regarding spirituality and religion, (c) movement toward appreciation of spiritual and religious diversity, (d) increases in self‐understanding, (e) the value of experiential learning, and (f) motivation for additional learning. The authors provide suggestions for counselor training on spirituality and religion.     

Spiritual Leadership,Follower Mediators,and Organizational Outcomes: Evidence From Three Industries Across Two Major Chinese Societies1

Spiritual leadership process was investigated across 2 major Chinese societies (China and Taiwan) and 3 major Chinese industries (manufacturing, financial/banking, and retailing service industries). The leader's factors of spiritual leadership, vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love by Fry (2003 ) were found to be mediated by 3 types of follower's factors to influence organizational outcomes; namely, (a) employee spiritual attribute toward work—meaning/calling; (b) employee spiritual attribute toward organization/team—membership; and (c) employee spiritual attribute toward inner self—self‐esteem and self‐efficacy. The inner‐self aspect of spirituality was found, over and above the other 2 types of follower's factors, to impact on the organizational outcomes, including self‐career management behavior and productivity. This pattern was consistent across all Chinese samples and industries.     

Differentiation of Self and Spirituality: Empirical Explorations

This study explored the relationships between an individual's interpersonal functioning, perceived spirituality, and selected spiritual practices. Using Bowen's family systems theory, the authors proposed that an individual's level of spiritual development and level of differentiation are correlated and that certain spiritual practices are predictive of both of these levels. The results of this study showed a positive correlation between differentiation and a general report of spirituality. Spiritual practices also predicted individuals' level of spiritual development. A common underlying concept, self‐regulation, may explain the correlation between differentiation and spiritual development. Likewise, spiritual practices may support change in both areas.     

Making the shift from ‘addict self ’ to ‘spiritual self ’: Results from a Stage I study of Spiritual Self-Schema (3-S) therapy for the treatment of addiction and HIV risk behavior

A manual-guided intervention, Spiritual Self-Schema (3-S) therapy, for the treatment of addiction and HIV risk behavior is being developed in a Stage I behavioral therapies development project. 3-S therapy integrates a cognitive model of self with a non-sectarian Buddhist framework suitable for people of all faiths. Data are presented on a sample of 29 cocaine- and opioid-dependent clients. Seventy-nine percent completed the 8-week intervention. Drug use and other HIV risk behaviors decreased with treatment. Evidence of a shift in self-schema from ‘addict self?’ to ‘spiritual self?’ is presented. Reaction time to endorse spiritual qualities as ‘me’ and addict qualities as ‘not me’ decreased, and self-report of daily spiritual experiences and practices, and the perceived influence of spirituality on behavior increased. A shift in self-schema was correlated with change in drug use and other HIV risk behaviors.     

An exploration of spiritual superiority: The paradox of self‐enhancement

Spiritual training is assumed to reduce self‐enhancement, but may have the paradoxical effect of boosting superiority feelings. It can thus operate like other self‐enhancement tools and contribute to a contingent self‐worth that depends on one's spiritual accomplishments. In three studies (N = 533, N = 2,223, N = 965), a brief measure of spiritual superiority showed good internal consistency and discriminant validity. As predicted, it was distinctly related to spiritual contingency of self‐worth, illustrating that the self‐enhancement function of spirituality is similar to other contingency domains. It was correlated with self‐esteem and, more strongly, with communal narcissism, corroborating the notion of spiritual narcissism. Spiritual Superiority scores were consistently higher among energetically trained participants than mindfulness trainees and were associated with supernatural overconfidence and self‐ascribed spiritual guidance. Our results illustrate that the self‐enhancement motive is powerful and deeply ingrained so that it can hijack methods intended to transcend the ego and, instead, adopt them to its own service.     

Recognizing Spirituality as an Important Factor in Counselor Supervision

Despite the recent, growing emphasis on spirituality in the counseling and psychotherapy literature, information regarding spirituality and the supervision process is limited. The purpose of this article is to help supervisors and supervisees enhance awareness of spiritual values in supervision. Factors such as counselor competency, conceptualization of spirituality, cross‐cultural awareness, and the similarity of clients' and counselors' values form a foundation for developing effective intervention and supervision strategies. A series of research questions is proposed to spur a program of empirical exploration.     

Self‐esteem mediates the relationship between spirituality and subjective well‐being in Iran

Self‐esteem appears to play a central role in the spiritual life and ethical behaviour of the typical Iranian. For example, for many Iranians, humankind is believed to be the crown of creation, and each person is believed to be individually valued by God. Previous empirical studies also indicate that in Iran spirituality is positively associated with self‐esteem. On this basis, it was hypothesised that self‐esteem would be one of the mechanisms through which spirituality leads to increased mental well‐being. Mediation analysis showed that self‐esteem was a partial mediator of the spirituality–well‐being relationship. Moreover, results of moderated mediation analysis revealed that this mediation was not significantly moderated by gender, and that the indirect path through self‐esteem was significant in both genders. Implications of the results and their relevance to other western and eastern religions (e.g. Christianity and Buddhism) are discussed.     

Connection,Action, and Hope: an Invitation to reclaim the “Spiritual” in Health Care

The complex process of health has, until recently, been understood devoid of a spiritual component. The present article offers a model of health inclusive of spirituality with implications for the health communication field. Amending the assumptive non-relevance of spirituality to individual health, a growing body of scholarship in various disciplines recognizes the ways in which spirituality connects to overall wellness. As a whole, this literature equates spirituality with seeking, striving, and forward movement. Given the potential for health communication scholars to make significant contributions at the forefront of this research, this article proposes a dynamic model of health inclusive not only of the physical and mental, but of the spiritual as well. Recognizing its centrality to wellbeing, the model locates the spiritual self at the center. Specifically, the spiritual self is described as engaging action, hope, and connection to self, others, and/or the universe.     

Reciprocal maturities: Spirit and psyche in pastoral counseling and spiritual direction

This article uses a model for integrating spiritual and psychological maturity (Conn, 1989) in theological anthropology to contend that there is a reciprocal relationship not only between spiritual and psychological maturity but also between pastoral counseling and spiritual direction. I review Christian spirituality in terms of maturity in relationship: to self, to others, and to God. Next is an examination of the prevailing attitude in pastoral counseling toward spirituality and spiritual direction. Then Conn's integration is assessed — of spirituality with psychology, of spiritual direction with pastoral counseling — as a combination of spiritual and hermeneutical perspectives on the maturing self.     

Make Love and Lose Your Religion and Virtue: Recalling Sexual Experiences Undermines Spiritual Intentions and Moral Behavior

In contrast with traditional considerations, sexuality is often perceived today as being rather compatible with religion/spirituality and morality. However, there may be some inherent opposition between (a) sexuality (thoughts, affects, and pleasure) and (b) religion/spirituality (attitudes, motives) and (interpersonal) morality (dispositions, behavior). The two imply, respectively, self‐enhancement versus self‐transcendence, disinhibition versus self‐control, and disgust indifference versus sensitivity. We hypothesized that sexual experience attenuates spiritual and moral concerns and behaviors. In three online experiments, young adults were asked to recall a personal sexual experience. Compared to a control condition, sexual induction diminished spiritual behavioral intentions (Experiments 1 and 2), in particular among those with high individual disinhibition (Experiment 1), as well as behaviors of prosociality and integrity/honesty (Experiment 3). The effects were independent of individual religiousness/spirituality. These findings suggest that combining sexual pleasure with self‐transcendence and moral perfection, even if a legitimate ideal, is not an easy enterprise.     

SUPPORT FOR A NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF SPIRITUALITY IN PERSONS WITH TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Recent research suggests that spiritual experiences are related to increased physiological activity of the frontal and temporal lobes and decreased activity of the right parietal lobe. The current study determined if similar relationships exist between self‐reported spirituality and neuropsychological abilities associated with those cerebral structures for persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Participants included 26 adults with TBI referred for neuropsychological assessment. Measures included the Core Index of Spirituality (INSPIRIT); neuropsychological indices of cerebral structures: temporal lobes (Wechsler Memory Scale‐III), right parietal lobe (Judgment of Line Orientation), and frontal lobes (Trail Making Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test). As hypothesized, spirituality was significantly negatively correlated with a measure of right parietal lobe functioning and positively correlated (nonsignificantly) with measures of left temporal lobe functioning. Contrary to hypotheses, correlations between spirituality and measures of frontal lobe functioning were zero or negative (and nonsignificant). The data support a neuropsychological model that proposes that spiritual experiences are related to decreased activity of the right parietal lobe, which may be associated with decreased awareness of the self (transcendence) and increased activity of the left temporal lobe, which may be associated with the experience of specific religious archetypes (religious figures and symbols).     

Spiritual and Religious Competencies: A National Survey of CACREP‐Accredited Programs

In this study of 94 Counsel for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)‐accredited counselor education programs, 69% of respondents reported their programs addressed spiritual and religious issues; however, only 46% of CACREP liaisons perceived themselves as prepared or very prepared to integrate material related to spirituality and religion in counseling into their teaching and supervision activities. In addition, only 28% of respondents viewed their colleagues as similarly capable of addressing these issues as a component of counselor preparation. The authors discuss implications for training and practice.     

Spirituality in Counseling: What Do Counseling Students Think About It?

The author discusses students' reactions to 4 seminars. 1‐hour each, on the topic of spirituality in counseling. Students were enrolled in a master's‐level counseling program, Several issues emerged that have implications for the training of counselors on spiritual issues, including students' level of comfort with discussing spiritual issues, the difficulty of defining spirituality, client and counselor readiness to explore spirituality, and training issues in the area of spirituality.