学习策略与程序性知识迁移关系的研究

本研究以学习者拥有领域知识的水平差异为基点 ,结合元认知监控手段 ,考察学习策略与程序性知识迁移之间的关系。结果表明 :(1 )以揭发意义或价值、建立新旧知识信息间实质性联结的解释策略对拥有高、低领域知识组的被试具有明显促进问题解决的作用 ;而以相似性为基础的练习策略往往在学生头脑中建立的是新旧知识间表面特征的联结 ,因而程序化技能的迁移范围不如前者。 (2 )在运用获得的认知技能碰到阻碍时 ,解释策略不仅使高知组被试能够突破无关变量的影响 ,而且也在一定程度上弥补低知组被试掌握的规则缺陷。     

汉、英句法结构相似性与第二语言的熟练度对第二语言句法加工的影响

采用事件相关电位（ERP）技术,考察了汉、英句法结构相似性与第二语言（英语）熟练度对第二语言句法加工的影响。实验材料包含与汉语句法结构相似和不同的两种英语句法结构违反的句子。结果发现：与正确句子相比,相似句法违反句在高熟练组被试中,引发正向的ERP波形偏转（150-800ms）,而在低熟练组被试中,只引发了降低的N400（300-550ms）效应;对于不同句法违反句,无论高低熟悉程度的被试,均未出现显著的ERP效应。研究结果表明,第二语言句法与母语的相似性越高,加工起来更容易;第二语言熟练度水平对第二语言句法加工具有一定的促进作用,但受到两种语言句法结构相似性的影响,相似性越高,熟练度的促进作用越大。     

英语单词记忆过程中策略的选用和评价的研究

问卷结果表明 :普通大学生和 GRE考生在有关记忆过程的知识方面没有差异 ;绝大多数 GRE考生有选用“较多的”策略趋势 ,且在规定单词记忆量和精细加工策略方面差异显著 ;两类被试在对策略的评价的总体上具有一致性 ,但两类被试在选择比较有效和值得推荐的策略时 ,在一些自我监控策略上的选取比率表现出差异 ,在选择效果不佳和基本无效策略时 ,在某些一般记忆加工策略上选取比率也存在差异 ;绝大多数被试推荐策略是基于经验 ,判定策略无效是源于直觉判断。本文结合前人的研究成果 ,探讨了知识、情景因素与策略的选择和运用的关系 ;提出了实际学习情景下策略有效性意识形成的两个因素及可能途径。     

合作学习中一般自我效能感与自我监控的表现

该研究运用情境实验和问卷测量的方法,初探了一般自我效能感与自我监控不同的学生在合作学习的小组活动自评中的差异。结果表明,一般自我效能感高的被试对小组话动的价值评价比一般自我效能感低的被试更积极;但在对组织者的评价和对合作学习的喜爱程度上不如一般自我效能感低的学生。自我监控高的学生比自我监控低的学生对组织者有更积极的评价,但在对合作学习的喜爱程度上却比不上自我监控低的同学。     

工作记忆,意思相对频率与汉语歧义句的加工

本研究选取高、低工作记忆能量两组被试,通过两个实验,考察了歧义句多种解释的相对使用频率和被试工作记忆能量在歧义句加工中的作用。结果表明：（１）意思相对频率在歧义句加工中有显著效应,主要意思比次要意思更易于提取;（２）工作记忆能量对歧义句的加工仅表现出一定程度的影响,材料难度增加时,该效应达到边缘性显著的水平。     

提取练习在记忆保持与迁移中的优势效应：基于认知负荷理论的解释

提取练习比建构概念图更有利于记忆保持和迁移的研究结果尚存在争议。依据认知负荷的3个成分,设计两个实验探究前期知识水平与策略复杂性对以上两种学习策略有效性的影响。结果表明：(1)前期知识水平的主效应不显著,但是与学习策略之间存在交互作用：在提取练习策略条件下,高前期知识水平的被试与低前期知识水平的被试在记忆保持和迁移上的正确率没有显著差异,但是在建构概念图策略条件下,高前期知识水平的被试在记忆保持和迁移上的正确率显著地高于低前期知识水平的被试;(2)当降低概念图的难度后,被试使用建构部分概念图策略产生的认知负荷与使用提取练习策略相比显著降低,并且其在学习阶段学习到的知识量显著地高于使用提取练习策略的结果,但是在最终测试上,其记忆保持与迁移的正确率与使用提取练习策略并没有显著差异,策略的复杂性增加了学习者的额外负荷,但是对策略有效性的发挥却不具有决定性影响。以上结果说明提取练习策略之所以比建构概念图策略更具优势,不是因为其策略本身更易掌握,而是因为其与建构概念图策略相比不受学习者前期知识水平的影响。这意味着认知负荷理论可以很好地解释提取练习在记忆保持与迁移中产生优势效应的内部机制,并进一步证实提取练习与精细编码不同,具有独特的加工机制。     

基于计算机的插图工具对科学说明文的意义建构的影响

通过48名13岁被试之间的对比实验,考察插图类型是否影响能力高低两种被试建构有关食物链知识的意义。结果表明,（1）基于计算机的插图工具下的测验得分显著高于预置插图;（2）学习能力高者的测验得分显著高于学习能力低者;（3）插图类型与学习能力之间不存在显著交互作用。     

自我损耗对基于时间前瞻记忆的影响

采用Stroop任务和前瞻记忆双任务实验范式,比较不同自我损耗条件对被试基于时间前瞻记忆（TBPM）的影响,及其对TBPM的加工阶段和成分的作用。然后通过添加外部时钟监控条件,探讨外部时钟是否可以减少自我损耗对TBPM的消极影响,以及自我损耗对时钟监控情况的作用。结果表明：（1）在内部控制条件下,自我损耗会严重影响TBPM的表现,高损耗组的TBPM成绩显著低于低损耗组,另外,自我损耗主要干扰前瞻记忆的前瞻成分和TBPM的第三个加工阶段。（2）在外部控制条件下,自我损耗没有降低TBPM的表现,说明外部时钟可以降低自我损耗对TBPM的消极影响。（3）自我损耗使个体呈现出不同的时钟监控模式,且邻近目标时间内的时钟监控次数与TBPM成绩呈显著正相关。     

社交焦虑个体对正性面孔刺激的解释偏差

本研究分别在短时（60ms）和长时（无时间限制）条件下呈现匹配的正性和中性面孔,要求高、低社交焦虑被试选择更具威胁性的面孔,以验证两者对正性刺激是否存在主观解释偏差,并考察该偏差产生于认知加工的哪一阶段。结果发现,长时条件下,高焦虑组选择正性面孔的比例显著高于低焦虑组;短时条件下无显著差异。提示高社交焦虑个体对正性刺激存在主观、外显的解释偏差,他们更倾向于对正性刺激做出消极解释,并且这种偏差产生于认知加工的后期。     

样例数量对内隐序列学习的影响

本研究采用序列学习范式,探讨了样例数量对内隐序列学习的影响,以揭示意识在学习中的作用以及内隐学习获得的知识表征。研究发现,在内隐序列学习中：（1）被试既可以记忆具体的样例知识也可以抽取抽象的规则知识;（2）样例数量影响被试对样例和规则知识的获得,在样例较少时被试可以获得更多的样例和规则知识;（3）样例数量影响被试对意识知识的获得,在本研究中仅当样例数为4时被试获得了有关样例和规则的意识知识。     

“Spontaneous” strategy use: Perspectives from metacognitive theory

A metacognitive model was proposed as an explanatory framework for spontaneous strategy use. Interactive components of the model, including specific strategy knowledge, metamemory acquisition procedures, general strategy knowledge, and attributional beliefs, were shown to account, in part, for unprompted strategy use. A study in which hyperactive children transferred newly acquired strategies following self-control training and attributional retraining served as an illustration of how components in the metacognitive model can be used to better understand “spontaneity.” Finally, relationships among domain-specific knowledge, automaticity, general intelligence, and metacognitive knowledge were discussed.     

On-line syntactic processing in aphasia: studies with auditory moving window presentation

Twenty-eight aphasic patients with left hemisphere strokes and matched control subjects were tested on an auditory moving windows task in which successive phrases of a sentence were presented in response to subjects' self-paced button presses and subjects made timed judgments regarding the plausibility of each sentence. Pairs of sentences were presented that differed in syntactic complexity. Patients made more errors and/or took longer in making the plausibility judgments than controls, and were more affected than controls by the syntactic complexity of a sentence in these judgments. Normal subjects showed effects of syntactic structure in self-paced listening. On-line syntactic effects differed in patients as a function of their comprehension level. High-performing patients showed the same effects as normal control subjects; low performing patients did not show the same effects of syntactic structure. On-line syntactic effects also differed in patients as a function of their clinical diagnosis. Broca's aphasic patients' on-line performances suggested that they were not processing complex syntactic structures on-line, while fluent aphasics' performances suggested that their comprehension impairment occurred after on-line processing was accomplished. The results indicate that many aphasic patients retain their ability to process syntactic structure on-line, and that different groups of patients with syntactic comprehension disorders show different patterns of on-line syntactic processing.     

Syntactic processing of Hebrew sentences in normal and dyslexic readers: electrophysiological evidence

The authors examined differences in brain activity as measured by amplitudes and latencies of event-related potential (ERP) components in Hebrew-speaking adult dyslexic and normal readers. The participants were measured while processing words' syntactic functions during reading of sentences with subject-verb-object syntactic order. The results suggested that among dyslexic and normal readers, N100 and P300 ERP components were sensitive to certain constituents of syntactic analysis for target words in accordance with their grammatical roles. The findings further demonstrated significant differences in ERP measures between dyslexic and normal readers. Compared with normal readers, dyslexic readers exhibited consistently higher amplitudes and longer latencies in both ERP components for the subject of the sentence. Significant, though less consistent, ERP variations were observed for other sentence elements. In addition, dyslexic readers differed from normal readers in their processing strategies. For normal readers, the verb-oriented, morphologically based strategy was found to be the most efficient for sentence processing in Hebrew, whereas the dyslexic readers demonstrated a more primitive mode of identification of words' grammatical roles, namely, the word-order strategy. The results support the hypothesis that there is a syntactic processing "weakness" in dyslexics.     

Syntactic Processing of Hebrew Sentences in Normal and Dyslexic Readers: Electrophysiological Evidence

The authors examined differences in brain activity as measured by amplitudes and latencies of event-related potential (ERP) components in Hebrew-speaking adult dyslexic and normal readers. The participants were measured while processing words' syntactic functions during reading of sentences with subject-verb-object syntactic order. The results suggested that among dyslexic and normal readers, N100 and P300 ERP components were sensitive to certain constituents of syntactic analysis for target words in accordance with their grammatical roles. The findings further demonstrated significant differences in ERP measures between dyslexic and normal readers. Compared with normal readers, dyslexic readers exhibited consistently higher amplitudes and longer latencies in both ERP components for the subject of the sentence. Significant, though less consistent, ERP variations were observed for other sentence elements. In addition, dyslexic readers differed from normal readers in their processing strategies. For normal readers, the verb-oriented, morphologically based strategy was found to be the most efficient for sentence processing in Hebrew, whereas the dyslexic readers demonstrated a more primitive mode of identification of words' grammatical roles, namely, the word-order strategy. The results support the hypothesis that there is a syntactic processing “weakness” in dyslexics.     

Parametric effects of syntactic-semantic conflict in Broca's area during sentence processing

The hypothesized role of Broca’s area in sentence processing ranges from domain-general executive function to domain-specific computation that is specific to certain syntactic structures. We examined this issue by manipulating syntactic structure and conflict between syntactic and semantic cues in a sentence processing task. Functional neuroimaging revealed that activation within several Broca’s area regions of interest reflected the parametric variation in syntactic-semantic conflict. These results suggest that Broca’s area supports sentence processing by mediating between multiple incompatible constraints on sentence interpretation, consistent with this area’s well-known role in conflict resolution in other linguistic and non-linguistic tasks.     

句法加工中的预测现象及实验证据

句法加工是读者通过整合输入的言语信息来理解句子的过程。句法加工的存在,使得读者能够提前预测文本的信息,提高阅读效率。由于阅读离不开信息整合,研究者提出两类不同的句法理论:句法预测的模块局域性理论和句法预测的互动分析性观点。这两类理论的争论点在于句法加工是单独模块化的自上而下加工,还是自下而上-自上而下的互动分析加工过程。其区别表现为句法预测的作用——前者认为句法预测对句子加工有抑制作用,后者认为句法预测对句子加工起促进作用。来自眼动、ERP等研究的数据佐证了句法预测的存在。未来研究应围绕其差异进行深入探讨,以揭示句法加工的实质。     

Relationships between study organization, retrieval organization, and general and strategy-specific memory knowledge in young children

The present study examined relationships between young children's memory knowledge and their use of taxonomic and color memory organization. Forty-eight 5-, 6-, and 7-year-olds were administered metamemory tests of organization-strategy knowledge and general memory knowledge, and were tested on two study-recall tasks before, and two study-recall tasks after, training in the use of color or taxonomic organization. Study organization (grouping) scores were low before training, but improved significantly in post-training tasks. Training effects were less pronounced for retrieval organization (clustering) and did not occur for item recall. Relationships between taxonomic study and retrieval organization were apparent only for the 7-year-olds, while relationships between color organization at study and retrieval were not apparent at any age level. Relationships between metamemory, strategy-use, and recall proficiency were evident on some tasks for 7-year-olds, but not for younger children. Although teacher ratings of the children's mastery orientations were also found to be related to recall proficiency for the older subjects, specific strategy knowledge was a more consistent correlate of strategy use and amount recalled.     

音高和时长信息感知的范畴特异性及其发展

通过考察不同范畴间相同声音特征和同一范畴内不同声音特征的感知探讨了言语和音乐中音高和时长信息感知的特异性及发展模式。结果发现：同一范畴内不同声音特征的感知显著相关,支持音高和时长信息加工的范畴特异性理论;高一学生只在言语中的音高和时长信息的感知上具有明显的范畴特异性,说明范畴特异性的形成因声音范畴属性的不同而有所差异;高一学生言语中音高信息的感知能力好于对时长信息的感知,而成人却没有差异,可能是受到了母语和第二语言学习经验的影响。     

Response selection strategies and realism of confidence judgments

Two studies were conducted to examine how response selection strategy is related to confidence ratings and to performance on general knowledge questions. In both studies subjects were asked to answer 80 general knowledge questions and to rate their confidence in the correctness of the answer selected. A pilot study, in which subjects thought aloud while answering general knowledge questions, was carried out to identify different response selection strategies. In the first study, 40 subjects were asked to indicate which of four strategies (immediate recognition, inference, intuition, or guessing) they used for selecting an answer. In Study 2, think aloud reports from 20 subjects were coded into the same four strategies. The distribution of strategies differed between the studies, but there were very similar relations among strategy, confidence, and correctness of answer in the two studies. Response selection strategy was related to correctness of answer when confidence was partialed out. More specifically, immediate recognition was associated with higher proportion correct than with the other strategies. It was also found that ratings of how difficult the knowledge questions were to fellow students of the subjects were on a much more realistic level than the confidence ratings were. It is concluded that people could improve their confidence judgments by taking into account (a) how difficult a question is to other people, and (b) the response selection strategy used for answering the question.     

Cross-Domain Development of Scientific Reasoning

The two studies presented here examine processes of theory revision and strategy change that occur when preadolescent subjects engage in self-directed exploration of a problem domain. The microgenetic method, involving frequent encounters with the same tasks over a period of months, permitted detailed observation of the change process. Not only do theories themselves undergo revision but also the reasoning strategies subjects use to generate new knowledge show improvement over time. The cross-domain feature of the research made it possible to establish that these strategies show co-development when subjects are observed over time working in two different content domains. The research thus accomplishes the objective of more clearly distinguishing the reasoning competencies that are developing from the domain-specific contexts in which they are situated.