Group and Interpersonal Effects in International Computer-Mediated Collaboration

Drawing on two recent theories, this article proposes interaction hypotheses involving the joint effects of salient group versus individual identity and long-term versus short-term group membership on the social, interpersonal, and intellectual responses of group members collaborating via computer-mediated communication. Participants from institutions in two countries used computer-mediated communication under various conditions. Results indicate that some conditions of computer-mediated communication use by geographically dispersed partners render effects systematically superior to those obtained in other mediated conditions and greater or lesser than effects obtained through face-to-face interaction.     

The Effects of Domain Knowledge and Instructional Manipulation on Creative Idea Generation

The experiment was designed to explore the effects of domain knowledge, instructional manipulation, and the interaction between them on creative idea generation. Three groups of participants who respectively possessed the domain knowledge of biology, sports, or neither were asked to finish two tasks: imagining an extraterrestrial animal and creating a new sport. Participants in each group were randomly assigned to one of three instructions, in order to encourage them to perform the tasks using a specific instance strategy (relying on specific instances), an abstract strategy (relying on abstract principles), or their habitual ways. Based on an analysis of the participants' verbal reports and their creations, the results suggested that domain knowledge enhanced the tendency to use the abstract strategy, and improved the originality and practicality of the generated ideas. Instructions also influenced the strategy participants used in creative idea generation. The instruction to use abstract principles brought forth the most original creations. Moreover, there was an interaction between domain knowledge and instructions. Encouraging participants to use the specific instance strategy blocked the knowledgeable people from developing novel ideas. Other factors, such as age, grade and gender, were found to be unrelated to either the originality or the practicality of the creations. The implications of the results were discussed in detail.     

Effects of Work Group Size and Task Size on Observers' Job Characteristics Ratings

The effects of number of workers (work-group size) and number of tasks (task size) on perceptions of job enrichment were investigated using a simulated assembly-line job. Forty subjects observed workers performing a job in four combinations of work-group size and task size, rating the respective jobs on dimensions taken from the Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1975). The results indicated that jobs performed by smaller work groups were perceived as significantly more enriched on four of the five dimensions and had greater potential for worker motivation. Significant main effects were also found for task size on three of the five dimensions such that jobs with larger tasks were seen as more enriched and as having greater motivating potential for the workers. A significant interaction was noted for only one job dimension. An ecological perspective of the data (manning theory) supported these results and suggests theoretically useful interpretations of the data.     

Computer-Mediated Communication and Group Decision Making: A Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis of research comparing decision making in face-to-face versus computer-mediated communication groups was conducted. Results suggest that computer-mediated communication leads to decreases in group effectiveness, increases in time required to complete tasks and decreases in member satisfaction compared to face-to-face groups. All of the moderators tested (anonymity in the group process, limited versus unlimited time to reach decisions, group size, and task type) were significant for at least one of the dependent variables. The article concludes with cautions about the unbridled rush by organizations to adopt computer-mediated communication as a medium for group decision making and implications of the present findings for theory and research on computer-mediated communication and group decision making.     

Toward More Creative and Innovative Group Idea Generation: A Cognitive-Social-Motivational Perspective of Brainstorming

In many meetings and work sessions, group members exchange ideas in order to come up with novel, creative solutions for problems and to generate ideas for future innovations. This type of group idea generation or brainstorming process has been studied in detail, and we have discovered much about the cognitive and social processes that underlie group idea generation. It appears that the brainstorming performance of groups is often hindered by various social and cognitive influences, but under the appropriate conditions, group idea exchange can be quite effective. In this article, we summarize the present state of knowledge, point out some significant gaps in our knowledge, and suggest a cognitive-social-motivational perspective to integrate the major findings and to guide future research in the area of group creativity and group idea generation.     

The Idea of a Proof-Theoretic Semantics and the Meaning of the Logical Operations

This is a purely conceptual paper. It aims at presenting and putting into perspective the idea of a proof-theoretic semantics of the logical operations. The first section briefly surveys various semantic paradigms, and Section 2 focuses on one particular paradigm, namely the proof-theoretic semantics of the logical operations. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

音乐节奏和共餐人数对就餐时间的影响

本实验采用现场实验研究的方法,对不同音乐节奏和共餐人数条件下大学生就餐时间的差异进行了分析。结果表明:(1)总的来说,音乐节奏对就餐时间的主效应是显著的,快节奏音乐下的就餐时间少于慢节奏下的就餐时间;(2)单人组被试就餐时间显著快于多人组被试共餐时间;(3)音乐节奏和共餐人数对就餐时间存在交互作用;(4)在单人就餐时音乐节奏对就餐时间的效应是显著的,而多人共餐则没有这种效应或效应不显著。     

Applying Multiple Knowledge Structures in Creative Thought: Effects on Idea Generation and Problem-Solving

Prior studies have indicated that multiple knowledge structures, schema, associations, and cases, are involved in creative thought. Few studies, however, have examined how these different knowledge structures operate together in idea generation and creative problem-solving. Accordingly, in the present study 247 undergraduates were asked to generate ideas relevant to a social innovation problem and then provide a potential solution to the problem. A training manipulation was used to encourage application of schematic, associational, or case-based knowledge either alone or in combination. It was found that prompting use of a single knowledge structure, specifically schema or associational knowledge, resulted in the production of more high quality ideas. However, prompting use of multiple knowledge structures, specifically combining either schema or associations with cases, resulted in the production of higher quality and more original problem-solutions. The implications of these findings for understanding the role of different knowledge structures in creative thought are discussed.     

Group Size Effects on Risk Perception: A Test of Several Hypotheses

Yamaguchi (1998) found that people perceived a lower level of risk in a group than when they were alone, despite the fact that being in a group did not reduce the objective level of risk. Three experiments were conducted to examine several potential explanations for this effect. Experiment 1 replicated the group size effect in self-perception as well as the perception of the risk level of others. Results did not support the interdependence hypothesis and the affiliation hypothesis. Experiments 2 and 3 tested a hypothesis based on the availability heuristic. The group size effect was reduced or nullified when the target of risk judgment was associated with risk-seeking behavior or when an accident, in which many people died, was made salient.     

The Influence of Different Pictorial Representations During Idea Generation

During creative problem‐solving, designers frequently come across a variety of rich visual displays. While browsing for different sources of information, pictorial representations of existing concepts take prominence. However, once designers start generating new solution ideas to design problems, they often become too attached to some of the examples they encounter. Inadequate and excessive repetition of key attributes (e.g. object features, principles) from existing solutions has been termed design fixation. The study presented here investigates the influence that different pictorial representations of a particular solution had upon industrial design students during an ideation exercise. The findings demonstrate high levels of repetition of particular key attributes in the outcome generated by the treatment groups, when compared to a control condition. The results also show that such attribute repetition led to the occurrence of design fixation, with a visible detrimental impact for particular aspects of the ideas generated. Reasons for the occurrence of design fixation are discussed in light of its implications to design quality; and ultimately, to the use of different types of pictorial stimuli in design practice.     

Mild Affective Shifts and Creativity: Effects on Idea Generation,Evaluation, and Implementation Planning

This study investigated the impact of mild shifts in affective tone (i.e., pleasant vs. unpleasant) and arousal (i.e., high vs. low) on three creative processes. Undergraduates read short stories designed to induce affective shifts and then were asked to generate solutions to a complex business problem. Shifts in affective tone and arousal interacted to influence idea generation and implementation planning, but not idea evaluation. The strongest creative performance was exhibited by participants who experienced a stable and pleasantly toned, low-arousal (i.e., relaxed) state and by those who shifted to an unpleasantly toned, high-arousal (i.e., angry) state. In contrast, those who shifted to an unpleasantly toned, low-arousal (i.e., sad) state or a pleasantly toned, high-arousal (i.e., happy) state tended to exhibit poorer creative performance. These results demonstrate the need to revisit the popular conception that organizations should promote intense levels of pleasant affect to enhance employee creativity.     

Positional Order and Group Size Effects in Resource Dilemmas with Uncertain Resources

We report the results of three experiments in which groups of players share a common resource pool whose size is a random variable with a commonly known distribution. We study a new information structure - called the positional order protocol - under which requests are made in an exogenously determined and commonly known order without disclosing the requests of previous players in the sequence. Mean individual requests under this protocol of play are compared with data gathered under the more familiar simultaneous protocol (simultaneously made requests) and sequential protocol (sequentially made requests with full disclosure of previous requests). Previously reported effects of the resource uncertainty on individual requests obtained under the simultaneous and sequential protocols are generalized across different group sizes. In contrast to the game-theoretical prediction, which does not distinguish between the simultaneous and positional order protocols, mean individual requests and position in the sequence are highly and significantly correlated. We conclude that position effects can be induced by temporal priority, even in the absence of differential information.     

Anticipated Ongoing Interaction Versus Channel Effects on Relational Communication in Computer-Mediated Interaction

Previous research on the interpersonal tone of computer-mediated communication shows different effects using longitudinal computer-mediated groups than are found in research using one-shot groups, even before the developmental aspects associated with time can accrue. One factor distinguishing these approaches is the anticipation of future interaction experienced by longitudinal groups. This research reports an experiment assessing the relative effects of anticipated future interaction and different communication media (computer-mediated versus face-to-face communication) on the communication of relational intimacy and composure. Asynchronous and synchronous computer conferencing and face-to-face groups were examined. Results show that the assignment of long-term versus short-term partnerships has a larger impact on anticipated future interaction reported by computer-mediated, rather than face-to-face, partners. Evidence also shows that anticipation is a more potent predictor of several relational communication dimensions than is communication condition. Implications for theory and practice are identified.     

Group Communication During Resource Dilemmas: 4: The Effect of Group Size

Previous theory and research implies that increasing the size of groups facing resource dilemmas results in poorer outcomes, but no previous study has allowed for communication among group members. The present study relates group size with communication content, task outcomes, and participant perceptions of their experience. With communication, actual group size was irrelevant; to the extent that groups chose to cooperate, outcomes were more equal within groups and participants had more positive perceptions. Greater information exchange and negative maintenance talk was related with less equal outcomes and more negative perceptions; more discussion relevant to specific strategy was associated with more equal outcomes. Findings are instructive concerning the genesis and role of group cooperation.     

Creative Problem Solving in Small Groups: The Effects of Creativity Training on Idea Generation,Solution Creativity,and Leadership Effectiveness

This investigation evaluated the degree to which creativity training, idea generation instruction, and creative process impacted idea production, creativeness of solutions, and leadership effectiveness. Three sets of hypotheses were tested with a 114 groups of adults. First, groups whose members had some (i.e., one CPS course) or advanced training (i.e., graduate-level study in creativity or creativity professionals) were significantly more effective at idea generation than groups without training. Furthermore, leaders with some and advanced training were perceived to be significantly more effective than those with no creativity training. With respect to creativeness of solutions, the advanced training groups outperformed all others. The second set of hypotheses focused on the effectiveness of idea generation instruction (i.e., instructions without brainstorming, brainstorming, and brainstorming with criticism). Analysis revealed no significant difference for idea generation instruction relative to idea production or creativeness of solutions. The final set of hypotheses examined the use of a simple process structure for groups without prior creativity training (i.e., distinct phases for idea generation and solution development). Analysis revealed that those meetings that followed a simple process structure out performed groups that did not follow a process for both idea generation and creativeness of solutions. Further results are presented and implications discussed.     

Beyond Idea Generation: The Power of Groups in Developing Ideas

Brainstorming research has claimed that individuals are more creative than groups. However, these conclusions are largely based on measuring creativity by the number of ideas generated, and researchers have tended to neglect other important components of creativity, such as the quality of developed ideas. These studies aim to address this gap in the literature and investigate how well individuals and groups develop ideas. The first study compared collaborative groups, nominal groups (i.e., groups composed of individuals working separately), and individuals on developing an original design for a language-learning game. No differences were revealed between conditions on the game ratings. In the second study, one idea was preselected and given to the participants for further development. Groups received higher ratings in the marketability and overall categories than both nominal groups and individuals, and higher ratings in the fun category than individuals. The qualitative data showed that groups discussed a wider range of topics and topics related to marketability more than individuals did. Thus it appears that there are benefits to developing ideas in a collaborative group rather than individually. Possible explanations for the present findings are explored.     

The Effect of Message Persistence and Disclosure on Liking in Computer-Mediated Communication

In computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems, the messages that a user types usually persist on the screen for some time, a feature that distinguishes CMC from face-to-face interaction. Persistence may activate psychological self-perception, leading communicators to infer from their persistent messaging how they feel about the subject more so than if messages did not persist. This study applies persistence and self-perception to the relationships between self-disclosure and liking. It identifies which among several disclosure or liking relationships may be most susceptible to self-perception effects. An experiment found that message persistence interacts with a conversational partner’s responses to self-disclosure and intensifies liking toward the partner. Suggestions follow for future research further exploring the mechanisms of persistence, and reconceptualizing self-perception factors in interactive media settings.     

群体规模与领导行为对群体组织公民行为的影响

以37个工作群体中的501位员工为对象,探讨群体规模与领导行为对群体组织公民行为的影响。运用多层验证性因子分析技术对调查数据进行了检验,并在此基础上进行了最优尺度回归和偏最小二乘回归分析。结果表明,群体规模越大,群体组织公民行为的水平越低。领导的个人品德和团队维系行为对群体组织公民行为具有显著的正向影响作用,而领导的工作绩效行为对群体组织公民行为的影响作用不显著。     

The Impact of Size of Cooperative Group on Achievement,Social Support,and Self-Esteem

The effect of cooperative learning in pairs and groups of 4 and in individualistic learning were compared on achievement, social support, and self-esteem. Sixty-two Italian 7th-grade students with no previous experience with cooperative learning were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for ability, gender, and self-esteem. Students participated in 1 instructional unit for 90 min for 6 instructional days during a period of about 6 weeks. The results indicate that cooperative learning in pairs and 4s promoted higher achievement and greater academic support from peers than did individualistic learning. Students working in pairs developed a higher level of social self-esteem than did students learning in the other conditions.