An interpersonal analysis of adult attachment style: circumplex descriptions,recoiled developmental experiences,self-representations,and interpersonal functioning in adulthood

Previous research suggests that the structure of adult attachment is dimensional, but the specific dimensions remain unclear. Given its relational nature, studies should examine attachment structure in association with conceptually related interpersonal constructs. The interpersonal model (Kiesler, 1996) provides an integrative framework to examine this structure and associations between dimensions of attachment security (i.e., Anxiety and Avoidance) and: 1) the dimensions of the interpersonal circumplex, 2) the five-factor model of personality, 3) recollections of mothers and fathers, and 4) current self-processes and adult social functioning. In two samples of undergraduates, the Anxiety and Avoidance dimensions were associated with a hostile-submissive interpersonal style. Canonical correlation analyses revealed that dimensions representing combinations of Anxiety and Avoidance, and roughly corresponding to the dimensions from Secure (i.e., low Anxiety and Avoidance) to Fearful (i.e., high Anxiety and Avoidance) attachment and from Preoccupied (i.e., high Anxiety and low Avoidance) to Dismissive (i.e., low Anxiety and high Avoidance) attachment related to the interpersonal constructs. The Secure to Fearful dimension (i.e., overall attachment security) seemed to share relatively more variance with the interpersonal constructs. These dimensions were associated with theoretically consistent characteristics, recollections of early experiences with parents, self-representations, and social functioning.     

An Interpersonal Approach to Religiousness and Spirituality: Implications for Health and Well‐Being

The interpersonal tradition (Horowitz & Strack, 2011) provides a rich conceptual and methodological framework for theory‐driven research on mechanisms linking religiousness and spirituality (R/S) with health and well‐being. In three studies, we illustrate this approach to R/S. In Studies 1 and 2, undergraduates completed various self‐report measures of R/S, interpersonal style, and other aspects of interpersonal functioning. In Study 3, a community sample completed a wide variety of R/S measures and a measure of interpersonal style. Many, but not all, aspects of religiousness (e.g., overall religiousness, intrinsic religiousness) were associated with a warm interpersonal style, and most aspects and measures of spirituality were associated with a warm and somewhat dominant style. Spirituality and related constructs (i.e., gratitude, compassion) were associated with interpersonal goals that emphasize positive relationships with others, and with beneficial interpersonal outcomes (i.e., higher social support, less loneliness, and less conflict). However, some aspects of R/S (e.g., extrinsic religiousness, belief in a punishing God) were associated with a hostile interpersonal style. R/S have interpersonal correlates that may enhance or undermine health and emotional adjustment. This interpersonal perspective could help clarify why some aspects of religiousness and spirituality are beneficial and others are not.     

Interpersonal analysis of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism

This article examines the validity of grandiose and vulnerable subtypes of narcissistic character styles through an analysis of personality disorder criteria, interpersonal problems, and adult attachment styles in a nonclinical population. The grandiose personalities in this sample were rated high in the dramatic traits associated with narcissistic, antisocial, and histrionic personality disorders based on a diagnostic interview, and they reported domineering and vindictive interpersonal problems. However, despite the observation of narcissistic personality pathology, they denied interpersonal distress related to their interpersonal problems and the majority reported adult attachment styles reflective of positive self-representations (Secure, Dismissive). Vulnerable narcissistic individuals were represented by high ratings on avoidant personality disorder based on a diagnostic interview. They reported high interpersonal distress and greater domineering, vindictive, cold, and socially avoidant interpersonal problems. The majority reported adult attachment styles reflective of negative self-representations (Fearful, Preoccupied). The validity of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism based upon the results of this study was discussed in terms of clinical theory and with reference to the implications of two subtypes of narcissism for diagnosis and treatment.     

The Role of Attachment Styles and Interpersonal Problems in Suicide‐Related Behaviors

The relationships among adult attachment styles, interpersonal problems, and categories of suicide‐related behaviors (i.e., self‐harm, suicide attempts, and their co‐occurrence) were examined in a predominantly psychiatric sample (N = 406). Both anxious and avoidant attachment styles were associated with interpersonal problems. In turn, specific interpersonal problems differentially mediated the relations between attachment style and type of suicide‐related behaviors. These findings suggest the importance of distinguishing between these groups of behaviors in terms of etiological pathways, maintenance processes, and treatment interventions.     

Attachment,caregiving, and marital satisfaction

This research tested the proposition that attachment and caregiving are central, interrelated components of adult love relationships. A sample of 229 married couples was used to assess the association between attachment and caregiving styles and the implications of these variables for marital satisfaction. There was evidence of partner matching in terms of dimensions of attachment (Comfort with closeness, Anxiety over relationships) and caregiving (Responsive care, Compulsive care). Secure attachment (high Comfort with closeness, low Anxiety over relationships) was associated with beneficial caregiving to the spouse (high Responsive care, low Compulsive care). These associations were modest in size, however, suggesting that attachment and caregiving are separate constructs; further, these constructs were related in different ways to retrospective reports of early parenting. Marital satisfaction was higher for securely attached spouses, and for those whose partners reported more beneficial caregiving. For husbands, however, the link between caregiving and satisfaction was restricted to short-term marriages, and to those high in Anxiety over relationships. Overall, the results support the role of attachment and caregiving in marriage, but suggest that variables such as gender have important moderating effects.     

Adult attachment dimensions and recollections of childhood family context: associations with dispositional optimism and pessimism

The present study tested the theoretically inferred but not yet empirically tested association between dispositional optimism–pessimism and attachment security among 423 Finnish women and men. A second‐order latent variable representing a generalized representation of attachment insecurity in close relationships that included two latent constructs, the one representing romantic adult attachment dimensions and the other representing recollections of attachment‐related childhood family relationship, was associated with greater pessimism; the adult attachment dimension of high anxiety had unique and additional explanatory power, not accounted for by the generalized representation of attachment‐related insecurity. The model explained 48% of the variance in pessimism. The results clearly emphasize that additional studies are needed to clarify the role of interpersonal processes in dispositional optimism–pessimism. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attachment styles in dating couples: Predicting relationship functioning over time

This study examined the associations between self‐reported attachment style dimensions and romantic relationship functioning over 1 year in a sample of heterosexual dating couples between the ages of 18 and 25 (115 dyads at T1, 57 dyads at T2; 74% Caucasian). Relationship functioning was assessed at multiple levels of analysis via self‐reports of interpersonal functioning, observers' ratings of dyadic interactions, and measures of autonomic responding during the interactions. No significant cross‐sectional associations were found between attachment style dimensions and interpersonal functioning. However, individuals who reported greater attachment‐related anxiety at T1 described their relationships as being of lower quality, were rated by observers as interacting less positively, and exhibited greater electrodermal reactivity during interactions 1 year later.     

Variations in the Understanding of Interpersonal Behavior: Adherence to the Interpersonal Circle as a Moderator of the Rigidity–Psychological Well‐Being Relation

ABSTRACT The idiothetic structure of interpersonal trait perceptions was examined as it moderated the interpersonal rigidity–psychological well‐being relation. The focus was on the extent to which individuals' perceptions of the similarity of interpersonal behavior fits (i.e., adhered to) the normative interpersonal circle. In two samples of college students, individual differences in adherence to the interpersonal circle moderated the relation of interpersonal rigidity with various indices of psychological well‐being. We found that those individuals whose perceptions of interpersonal traits were better represented by the interpersonal circle had negative relations between interpersonal rigidity and satisfaction with life, self‐confidence, self‐liking, and complementarity and positive relations with interpersonal problems. The results suggest that adherence to the interpersonal circle may be a new means of viewing traitedness and that cognitive interpretation of traits may have an important moderating function.     

Toward a social psychophysiology of vagally mediated heart rate variability: Concepts and methods in self‐regulation,emotion, and interpersonal processes

Theory and research on self‐regulation, emotional adjustment, and interpersonal processes focus increasingly on parasympathetic functioning, using measures of vagally mediated heart rate variability (vmHRV) or respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). This review describes models of vmHRV in these areas, and issues in measurement and analysis. We propose a framework organizing theory and research as examining (a) vmHRV as an individual difference or a situational response, and (b) resting, reactive, or recovery levels. Evidence supports interpretation of individual differences in resting vmHRV as a broad biomarker for adaptive functioning, but its specificity and underlying mechanisms require elaboration. Individual differences in vagal reactivity (i.e., trait‐like differences in vmHRV decreases during challenge or stress) are less commonly studied in adults and results are mixed. Many stressors and challenges evoke temporary decreases in vmHRV, and in some research self‐regulatory effort evokes increases. In a smaller literature, positive interpersonal experiences and some restorative processes increase resting vmHRV, whereas depletion of self‐regulatory capacity through related effort decreases it. Greater attention to conceptual distinctions regarding vmHRV constructs and several methodological issues will strengthen future research. Importantly, researchers should exercise caution in equating vmHRV with specific psychosocial constructs, especially in the absence of converging assessments and precise experimental manipulations.     

The relevance of security: A latent domain of attachment relationships

In the present study an adult attachment dimension, latent to the constructs of security, anxiety, and avoidance, was hypothesized, wherein security was expected to occupy the most relevant position. Furthermore, the reciprocal functioning of attachment constructs and their interactions with self‐esteem were explored. Four hundreds and thirty‐four Italian university students responded to two adult attachment questionnaires (Attachment Style Questionnaire and Adult Attachment Questionnaire) and to the Rosenberg Self‐esteem scale. A Many‐Facet Rasch Measurement modeling approach was adopted. The main results can be summarized as follows: (a) security, anxiety, and avoidance are nested under one latent attachment dimension; (b) security occupies the most prominent position on the dimension; (c) security is positively associated with a moderate level of attachment anxiety and negatively related to avoidance; and (d) a positive interaction between self‐esteem and security, and a negative relation between self‐esteem and anxiety, were detected. Theoretical, clinical, and empirical implications of the results are further discussed.     

Testing an Adaptationist Theory of Trait Covariation: Relative Bargaining Power as a Common Calibrator of an Interpersonal Syndrome

This article provides the first test of an adaptationist ‘common calibration’ theory to explain the origins of trait covariation, which holds that (i) personality traits are often facultatively calibrated in response to cues that ancestrally predicted the reproductive payoffs of different trait levels and (ii) distinct traits that are calibrated on the basis of common input cues will exhibit consistent patterns of covariation. This theory is applied to explain the covariation within a ‘personality syndrome’ encompassing various interpersonal trait dimensions (e.g. extraversion, emotionality and attachment styles). Specifically, it is hypothesized that these traits are inter‐correlated because each is calibrated in response to relative bargaining power (RBP)—a joint function of one's ability to benefit others and harm others. Path analyses from a correlational study compellingly supported this theoretical model: Objective and self‐perceived measures of RBP‐enhancing phenotypic features (physical attractiveness and physical strength) influenced an internal regulatory variable indexing RBP (i.e. self‐perceived RBP), which in turn had robust effects on each of the focal personality traits. Moreover, in support of the theory's core postulate, controlling for self‐perceived RBP greatly reduced the covariation within the interpersonal syndrome. These novel findings illustrate the promise of an evolutionary psychological approach to elucidating trait covariation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A psychoanalytically informed hospitalization‐based treatment of personality disorders

This study presents a model of psychic change in personality disorders focusing on three dimensions: felt safety, mentalization and self‐object relations. Based upon this model a hospitalization‐based therapy program was created. Four scales to measure these three dimensions on the Object Relation Interview are discussed: the Felt Safety Scale, the Reflective Functioning Scale and the Bion Grid Scale and the Differentiation‐Relatedness Scale. A naturalistic symptom outcome study of the program showed a large effect on both symptoms and personality functioning. Furthermore, trajectory based on pre‐treatment patient characteristics (i.e., anaclitic versus introjective personality styles). Importantly, we also found a relation between symptomatic and personality change and change in felt safety and object relations. At 5‐year follow‐up, patients showed sustained improvement in symptomatic distress and further improvement in terms of personality and interpersonal functioning.     

Multisurface Interpersonal Assessment in a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Context

The interpersonal paradigm of personality assessment provides a rich nomological net for describing and assessing constructs of interpersonal functioning. The aim of this article is to demonstrate for clinicians how the use of a multisurface interpersonal assessment (MSIA) battery can augment psychotherapy (e.g., cognitive-behavioral therapy). We present 2 clinical case examples and specify interpretative guidelines for MSIA that integrate multiple circumplex profiles (e.g., problems, traits, sensitivities, strengths, values, and efficacies) for each patient. Subsequently, we demonstrate how this approach provides a context to better understand patient symptoms and difficulties, and discuss how it can inform case conceptualization, treatment planning, and intervention.     

The role of pain anxiety, coping, and pain self-efficacy in rheumatoid arthritis patient functioning

Anxiety about pain is increasingly recognized as one factor contributing to increased pain perception and pain behavior [McCracken, L. M., Faber S. D., & Janeck A. S. (1998) Pain-related anxiety predicts nonspecific physical complaints in persons with chronic pain. Behavior Research and Therapy, 36, 621-630; McCracken L., & Gross R. (1995). The pain anxiety symptoms scale (PASS) and the assessment of emotional responses to pain. Innovations in clinical practice: a source book, 14, 309-321]. To assess this emotional reaction to pain in chronic pain patients, McCracken, Zayfert and Gross [McCracken, L., Zayfert, C., & Gross, R. (1992). The Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale: development and validation of a scale to measure fear of pain. Pain, 50, 67-73] developed the Pain Anxiety Symptom Scale (PASS) composed of four subscales: Cognitive Anxiety, Fearful Appraisal, Escape Avoidance and Physiological Anxiety. The present study extended previous work by examining the relationship among pain anxiety dimensions, use of active and passive coping strategies and arthritis self-efficacy as predictors of functional status in 154 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Functional status was assessed using the Five-Factor Model of the Arthritis Impact Scale, 2nd ed., (AIMS2): Physical Functioning, Affective Experience, Symptoms, Social Interaction and Role Function. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis on each of the AIMS2 criterion variables showed that pain anxiety, pain and symptom self-efficacy, health status and coping strategies were able to explain between 9 and 38% of the variance in the five AIMS2 variables. The present results support the hypothesized role of pain anxiety along with previously established contributions of self-efficacy and coping strategies, in affecting physical, social, emotional and role functioning in chronic RA patients.     

咨询会谈中的人际互补及其与工作同盟、咨询效果的关系

Leary的人际理论将人际互动行为划分为“情感”和“控制”两个维度, 互动双方在情感维度的一致性和控制维度的互补性统称为人际互补。为探究心理咨询过程中人际互补的发展趋势及其与工作同盟、咨询效果的关系, 采用电脑操纵杆方法, 编制《咨询会谈人际互补行为评分手册》, 对16个个案的48个心理咨询会谈录像进行评估。结果表明：有经验的咨询师在咨询前期的情感轴一致性高于中期和后期, 在咨询后期的控制轴互补性高于前期和中期, 新手咨询师的情感轴一致性和控制轴互补性均无阶段性差异; 咨询中期的情感轴一致性负向预测工作同盟和会谈深度; 情感轴一致性呈高-低-高发展趋势的个案咨询效果更好。结论: 心理咨询的人际互补三阶段模型得到一定程度的支持, 其作用机制有待进一步验证。     

Attachment,caregiving, and volunteering: Placing volunteerism in an attachment‐theoretical framework

Recent studies based on attachment theory demonstrate that dispositional and experimentally manipulated attachment security facilitate cognitive openness and empathy, strengthen self‐transcendent values, and foster tolerance of out‐group members, suggesting an effect of one behavioral system, attachment, on another, caregiving. Here we report 2 studies conducted in 3 different countries (Israel, the Netherlands, and the United States) to determine whether the 2 dimensions of attachment insecurity—anxiety and avoidance—are related to real‐world altruistic volunteering. In both studies and across the 3 locations, avoidant attachment was related to volunteering less and having less altruistic and exploration‐oriented motives for volunteering. Anxious attachment was related to self‐enhancing motives for volunteering. Additional results suggested that volunteering ameliorates the interpersonal problems of individuals high in anxiety and that volunteering has more beneficial effects if it is done for altruistic reasons. Future directions for experimental research on this topic are outlined.     

Development of an Interview for Anxiety-Relevant Interpersonal Styles: Preliminary Support for Convergent and Discriminant Validity

This report presents preliminary psychometric support for a new approach to assess anxiety-relevant interpersonal styles in close relationships, the Social Anxiety Relationship Interview (SARI). The SARI is a semistructured interview, designed to evaluate relevant interpersonal styles (e.g., lack of assertion, conflict avoidance, and fear of expressing strong emotions). In this report, the convergent and discriminant validity of the SARI are examined. Results indicate that the SARI demonstrated good convergent validity, with correlations ranging from .2 to .5 between the subscales and related constructs such as assertiveness, affective control, assertion of autonomy, lack of social self-confidence, and avoidant problem solving. Examining the relationship between the SARI subscales and four conceptually unrelated constructs (somatization, hostility, paranoia, and psychoticism) indicated few significant associations, controlling for social anxiety. Additionally, most aspects of interpersonal functioning assessed by the SARI appeared specific to social anxiety, on the basis of analyses that controlled for trait anxiety. Finally, SARI responses do not appear to be influenced by social desirability. These data provide promising support for this measure, which will encourage greater exploration of the role of interpersonal factors in social anxiety.     

The Association Between Adult Attachment Styles and Conflict Resolution in Romantic Relationships

This study examined whether adult attachment was predictive of conflict resolution behaviors and satisfaction in romantic relationships. It adopted a two-dimensional conceptualization for both adult attachment style (model of self, model of others) and conflict resolution behaviors (concern for self, concern for others). Both adult attachment dimensions, Avoidance and Anxiety, were predictive of conflict resolution behaviors and relationship satisfaction. Gender differences existed in conflict resolution behaviors, but they were not as strong a predictor as attachment characteristics of conflict resolution and relationship satisfaction. No gender differences were found in attachment styles.     

The self‐esteem roller coaster: Adult attachment moderates the impact of daily feedback

People with different attachment orientations rely on different sources of self‐esteem. This 14‐day diary study examined the impact of different types of feedback on self‐esteem for adults of different attachment orientations. Consistent with theory, higher (vs. lower) anxious participants' daily self‐esteem fluctuated more with daily interpersonal feedback conveying rejection or coming from a romantic partner; they also self‐reported stronger reactions to idiosyncratic negative interpersonal feedback. Higher (vs. lower) avoidant participants showed weaker daily self‐esteem fluctuation with positive interpersonal feedback, and those with a fearful‐avoidant attachment pattern reported stronger reactions to positive agentic feedback. Self‐reported emotional reactions mediated links between attachment dimensions and self‐reported impact of feedback on self‐evaluations. Results highlight the importance of affect‐regulation strategies in influencing regulation of self‐esteem.