High-order concept formation in the pigeon

After 30 days of operant training, with pecking responses to aerial photographs containing man-made objects reinforced with food, and no food reinforcement for pecking on photographs not containing man-made objects, a discrimination to the two classes of photographs was obtained. The discriminative response generalized to photographs with which the pigeons had no previous experience. This study demonstrates that pigeons are capable of forming relatively high-order concepts. Some possible stimulus properties controlling the discrimination are discussed.     

Bribery: the concept

The aim of this paper is to clarify the concept of bribery, and to do this in a way that reveals its underlying normative features. Bribery, like lying is not a value neutral concept. It has a negative connotation and is regarded by most as generally, although not necessarily universally, wrong. At the very least, those who resort to bribery bear a burden of justification for what they do. This is no small point, as no such burden must be borne for the vast majority of human activities, such as engaging in conversation or taking a walk, which normally do not. As Sissela Bok says of lying, we might say that a negative moral weight attaches to every act of bribery; it may be possible to counter this negative weight in some instances, but not without an argument (the provision of good reasons).¹ Why should a negative moral weight be attached to every act of bribery? It might be thought that, even if most instances of bribery are morally objectionable, the concept of bribery itself is morally neutral.² However, enticing people to violate what they take to be their positional duties does seem to call for some sort of moral justification. This seems to be so even in extreme cases, for example, when bribing a Nazi guard to allow concentration camp prisoners to escape. The ready availability of a moral justification in such circumstances does not eliminate the need for one.     

Beard's concept of neurasthenia and Freud's concept of the actual neuroses

Beard's concept of neurasthenia and Freud's concept of the actual neuroses are described and evaluated critically. Despite differences in the content of their theories, especially in the role of sexual factors and sexual mechanisms, there are important formal and logical similarities. Both Beard and Freud incorrectly identified the causes of the neuroses being studied; both used inadequate methods of assessing the strengths of the causal factors; and the central theoretical concepts of both were equally vacuous. Freud adopted the same method of study as did Beard, but does not seem to have been influenced directly by him.     

The concept of Junzi in the Zhongyong

The concept of junzi is the central issue in the Zhongyong, one of the most important Confucian books. A junzi leads a life starting with the original disposition of cheng 诚(being truthful to the real self). This paper analyzes the disposition of cheng to reveal two kinds of good in human existence, that is, the natural good, which is present in cheng; and the idea of good, which is a conceptualization of the natural good. The natural good is actually equal to the nature endowed by the Tian, and so it is primary and absolute. Meanwhile, the idea of good is secondary and can be improved by self-cultivation. The distinction and interaction between these two kinds of good are crucial in conceiving the concept of junzi. Yet, the distinction is so subtle that it often confuses people in self-cultivation. In fact, people in their actual lives may mix them up and perceive only the idea of good. We call this the junzi impasse. The Zhongyong does not offer enough discussion about this impasse. Since this confusion may cause the termination of self-cultivation, this paper offers a comparative discussion in the light of Christian guilty consciousness, and attempts to propose a solution to the junzi impasse.     

论《周易》中的"德"

德是中国古代思想中的重要概念。《周易》经传中有许多关于德的论述,例如盛德,指日日维新,与时俱行,所谓自强不息即是盛德。又如厚德,指包容万物,自求于己。另外还有至德、文德、懿德、崇德、居德、育德、俭德、龙德、君德、天德等,研究这些资料,对于理解《周易》哲学具有重要意义。     

On the concept of amae

A concept deriving from the Japanese word amae is introduced as that which bridges dependence and attachment, two conceptually different states. The word primarily refers to what an infant feels when seeking his or her mother, but it can also apply to an adult to indicate the presence of a similar feeling of being emotionally close to another. Significantly, the feeling of amae is not mediated by words, though it can be acknowledged as such on reflection. Also, when frustrated, it can easily lead to a desire for such a feeling. Two popular stories, one French and the other American, are cited to illustrate the existence of amae, and, in fact, its central importance, even in non-Japanese contexts. The psychology of keeping pets can also be understood in terms of amae. It is thus maintained that though the concept comes from Japanese, it is universally applicable and can shed new light on the emotional life which has been the main target of psychoanalytic investigation.     

Reinvigorating the concept of situation in social psychology

The concept of situation has a long and venerable history in social psychology. The author argues that recent approaches to the concept of situation have confused certain important elements. Herein, the author proposes that attention to three of these elements will reinvigorate the concept of situation in social psychology: (a) that the analysis of situations should begin with their objective features; (b) that situations should be conceptualized as affordances; and (c) that the interpersonal core of situations, in particular the extent to which they are influenced by relationships, is the proper and most profitable focus for social psychology. These elements are consistent with recent developments in the study of situated social cognition and may help better define social psychology's position within the sciences.