Perfectionism and psychological distress: evidence of the mediating effects of rumination

Three studies investigated the role of ruminative tendencies in mediating the effects of multidimensional perfectionism (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) on psychological distress. Study 1 (Sample 1, N = 279; Sample 2, N = 224) and Study 2 (N = 205) found evidence, cross‐sectionally and prospectively, that brooding ruminative response style either fully or partially mediated the effects of socially prescribed and self‐oriented perfectionism on psychological distress, depression and hopelessness levels. In addition, Study 3 (N = 163) confirmed these mediation effects for socially prescribed perfectionism in relation to depression and hopelessness, 2 months later, after initial levels of distress were controlled. Overall, these findings provide evidence that brooding ruminative response style is an important mechanism that can explain, in part, the relationship between perfectionism and distress. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Behavioral Self‐Regulation,Early Academic Achievement,and the Effectiveness of Urban Schools for Low‐Income Ethnic Minority Children

The independent and joint associations between child behavioral self‐regulation ability and school effectiveness in relation to academic achievement were examined in a sample of low‐income African American (n = 132) and Latino (n = 198) children attending kindergarten and first grade across a large metropolitan area. Child behavioral self‐regulation and school effectiveness were positively associated with both reading and mathematics performance. School effectiveness moderated the effect of behavioral self‐regulation on reading but not math achievement. Lower child behavioral self‐regulation during early elementary school was associated with lower reading achievement the following year but only among children attending less effective schools. Behavioral self‐regulation was not related to reading achievement among children attending more effective schools. Implications of these findings for policies addressing disparities in early academic achievement are discussed.     

A Meta‐analytic and Conceptual Update on the Associations Between Procrastination and Multidimensional Perfectionism

The equivocal and debated findings from a 2007 meta‐analysis, which viewed perfectionism as a unidimensional construct, suggested that perfectionism was unrelated to procrastination. The present meta‐analysis aimed to provide a conceptual update and reanalysis of the procrastination–perfectionism association guided by both a multidimensional view of perfectionism and self‐regulation theory. The random‐effects meta‐analyses revealed a small to medium positive average effect size (r  = .23; k  = 43, N  = 10 000; 95% confidence interval (95% CI) [0.19, 0.27]) for trait procrastination and perfectionistic concerns and a small to medium negative average effect size (r  = ?.22; k  = 38, N  = 9544; 95% CI [?0.26, ?0.18]) for procrastination and perfectionistic strivings. The average correlations remained significant after statistically accounting for the joint variance between the two perfectionism dimensions via semi‐partial correlations. For perfectionistic concerns, but not perfectionistic strivings, the effects depended on the perfectionism measure used. All effects did not vary by the trait procrastination measure used or the respondent's sex. Our findings confirm that from a multidimensional perspective, trait procrastination is both positively and negatively associated with higher‐order perfectionism dimensions and further highlights the value of a self‐regulation perspective for understanding the cognitive, affective and behavioural dynamics that characterise these traits. Copyright © 2017 European Association of Personality Psychology     

From trust in caregivers’ support to exploration: The role of openness to negative affect and self‐regulation

Attachment theory assumes that trust in caregivers’ support and exploration are closely related. Little research tried to investigate this link, nor focuses on mechanisms that might explain this association. The present studies examined whether trust is related to exploration through a serial indirect effect of openness to negative affect and self‐regulation. In Study 1, 212 children, aged 8–13, completed questionnaires assessing trust, openness to negative affect, self‐regulation and exploration. The results showed that trust predicted exploration, but only to the extent to which openness to negative affect and self‐regulation were involved too. Study 2 refined these findings (n = 59, aged 9–12) using a behavioral measure of openness to negative affect and exploration, and with mother‐reported self‐regulation. Replicating this serial indirect effect of openness to negative affect and self‐regulation with multiple informants and methods, the present studies advance our understanding of how trust might foster exploration in preadolescence.     

On Self‐Love and Outgroup Hate: Opposite Effects of Narcissism on Prejudice via Social Dominance Orientation and Right‐Wing Authoritarianism

Previous research has obtained mixed findings as to whether feelings of self‐worth are positively or negatively related to right‐wing ideological beliefs and prejudice. We propose to clarify the link between self‐worth and ideology by distinguishing between narcissistic and non‐narcissistic self‐evaluations as well as between different dimensions of ideological attitudes. Four studies, conducted in three different socio‐political contexts: the UK (Study 1, N = 422), the US (Studies 2 and 3, Ns = 471 and 289, respectively), and Poland (Study 4, N = 775), investigated the associations between narcissistic and non‐narcissistic self‐evaluations, social dominance orientation (SDO), right‐wing authoritarianism (RWA), and ethnic prejudice. Confirming our hypotheses, the results consistently showed that after controlling for self‐esteem, narcissistic self‐evaluation was positively associated with SDO (accounting for RWA), yet negatively associated with RWA (accounting for SDO). These associations were similar after controlling for psychopathy and Machiavellianism (Study 3) as well as collective narcissism and Big Five personality characteristics (Study 4). Studies 2–4 additionally demonstrated that narcissistic self‐evaluation was indirectly positively associated with prejudice through higher SDO (free of RWA) but indirectly negatively associated with prejudice through lower RWA (free of SDO). Implications for understanding the role of self‐evaluation in right‐wing ideological attitudes and prejudice are discussed. Copyright © 2017 The Authors. European Journal of Personality published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Association of Personality Psychology     

Modesty in self‐presentation: A comparison between the USA and Japan

Japanese participants in Study 1 exhibited a self‐effacing tendency when no reason for their self‐evaluation was provided. However, they exhibited a self‐enhancing tendency when they were offered a monetary reward for the correct evaluation. In Study 2, Americans, especially American men, exhibited a self‐enhancing tendency whereas Japanese exhibited a self‐effacing tendency when no reason for making the evaluation was presented. This cultural difference disappeared when participants were provided with a monetary reward for correctly evaluating their performance level. These results support the view that the modesty observed in self‐evaluation among Japanese participants is a ‘default strategy’ to avoid offending others.     

The Role of Individual Factors in Friendship Formation: Considering Shyness,Self‐Esteem,Social Skills,and Defensive Pessimism

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of four individual factors (shyness, self‐esteem, social skills, and defensive pessimism) on the formation of friendships among undergraduate students. Freshmen (N = 93) completed a questionnaire assessing their shyness, self‐esteem, social skills, and level of defensive pessimism. Then, they answered questions about interpersonal indices (number of friends, satisfaction with friendships, their willingness to continue relationships, and their feelings of interpersonal friction). After 3 months, they completed a questionnaire about their anxiety state and behavior when talking with the people they had met since university admission. Moreover, they discussed the interpersonal indices they used in a pre‐questionnaire. Path analysis indicated that shyness directly leads to having fewer friends, whereas social skills lead to having more friends through extroversive behavior. Moreover, self‐esteem was positively related to an increase in the willingness to continue relationships, and reflection and pessimistic thinking (which is one component of defensive pessimism) led to a feeling of being fatigued from the effort of considering and respecting the reactions of others.     

Self‐oriented perfectionism and its relationship to selective attention: An experimental examination using social cognitive paradigm1

The cognitive biases associated with perfectionism include a selective attention to failure and the discounting of success. The present study experimentally focused on the relation between self‐oriented perfectionism (SOP) and selective attention using the social cognitive paradigm. Forty undergraduate students who were identified as either high or low in SOP were asked to perform modified versions of the Stroop task. The results suggest that participants with high SOP did not take longer to respond to failure words than to neutral words, but their reaction time to failure words was longer than that of participants with low SOP. These findings provided the basis for cognitive behavioral biases for perfectionism.     

Materialism lowers well‐being: The mediating role of the need for autonomy – correlational and experimental evidence

While there is evidence from the self‐determination perspective for the mediation of basic needs satisfaction in the materialism–well‐being link, no research to date has attempted to examine the relative contribution of the three needs to the mediating effect. Given that the predictive value of psychological needs on well‐being depends upon the match between the need and life domains, in two studies we investigate the differential mediating role of all three needs in the negative relationship between materialism and well‐being. In study 1, 231 adult participants self‐reported their materialistic attitudes, basic needs satisfaction and well‐being. In study 2 (N = 82 undergraduates), we experimentally activated materialistic thoughts and examined their effects on need satisfaction and state well‐being as compared to a neutral control condition. Study 1 furnished cross‐sectional evidence that materialism diminishes well‐being through lower satisfaction of the psychological need for autonomy only. Study 2 showed that experimental activation of materialism via short‐term exposure to pictorial consumer‐cues leads to lower satisfaction of the need for autonomy, which in turn produces higher negative affect among participants. The findings point towards the importance of considering the specific role of the psychological need for autonomy in the materialism–well‐being link.     

Students Aggress Against Professors in Reaction to Receiving Poor Grades: An Effect Moderated by Student Narcissism and Self‐Esteem

Laboratory evidence about whether students’ evaluations of teaching (SETs) are valid is lacking. Results from three (3) independent studies strongly confirm that "professors" who were generous with their grades were rewarded for their favor with higher SETs, while professors who were frugal were punished with lower SETs (Study 1, d = 1.51; Study 2, d = 1.59; Study 3, partial η² = .26). This result was found even when the feedback was manipulated to be more or less insulting (Study 3). Consistent with laboratory findings on direct aggression, results also indicated that, when participants were given a poorer feedback, higher self‐esteem (Study 1 and Study 2) and higher narcissism (Study 1) were associated with them giving lower (more aggressive) evaluations of the "professor." Moreover, consistent with findings on self‐serving biases, participants higher in self‐esteem who were in the positive grade/feedback condition exhibited a self‐enhancing bias by giving their "professor" higher evaluations (Study 1 and Study 2). The aforementioned relationships were not moderated by the professor's sex or rank (teaching assistant vs.professor). Results provide evidence that (1) students do aggress against professors through poor teaching evaluations, (2) threatened egotism among individuals with high self‐esteem is associated with more aggression, especially when coupled with high narcissism, and (3) self‐enhancing biases are robust among those with high self‐esteem. Aggr. Behav. 39:71‐84, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Perfectionistic self-presentation, socially prescribed perfectionism, and suicide in youth: a test of the perfectionism social disconnection model

The role of interpersonal components of perfectionism in suicide outcomes among youth was assessed and the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model (PSDM) was tested by determining whether the links between socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and perfectionistic self-presentation (PSP) and suicide outcomes are mediated by experiences of social disconnection, as indicated by social hopelessness and being bullied. PSP, trait perfectionism, suicide outcomes, and experiences of being bullied and social hopelessness were measured in 152 psychiatric outpatient children and adolescents. Correlational tests confirmed that PSP and SPP were associated with suicide outcomes and these interpersonal perfectionism components were associated significantly with bullying and social hopelessness. Support was also obtained for the PSDM. The relationship between the PSP facets, particularly nondisplay of imperfections, and suicide outcomes were mediated by being bullied. Additionally, the relationship between all interpersonal components of perfectionism and suicide risk was mediated by social hopelessness. Theoretical and clinical implications of interpersonal components of perfectionism and social disconnection in suicide outcomes for youth are discussed.     

Positive intelligence illusions: on the relation between intellectual self-enhancement and psychological adjustment

The relation between self‐enhancement and psychological adjustment has been debated for over 2 decades. This controversy is partly due to the variety of approaches implicated in the assessment of mainly self‐enhancement but also psychological adjustment. We adopted a face‐valid approach by statistically removing actual intellectual ability variance from self‐rated intellectual ability variance. Study 1 (N = 2,048), a concurrent Internet investigation, provided initial insight into the relation between intellectual self‐enhancement and psychological adjustment. Study 2 (N = 238), a longitudinal round‐robin investigation, allowed a closer examination of the dynamic processes underlying this relation. Self‐enhancement was positively linked to multiple indicators of intrapersonal and interpersonal adjustment, and predicted rank‐order increases in adjustment over time. The links between intellectual self‐enhancement and intrapersonal adjustment were mediated by self‐esteem. Finally, the interpersonal costs and benefits of self‐enhancement systematically varied depending on methodology.     

Self‐Harm Focus Leads to Greater Collective Guilt: The Case of the U.S.‐Iraq Conflict

Collective guilt from harm one's group has caused an out‐group is often undermined because people minimize or legitimize the harm done (i.e., they generate exonerating cognitions). When a group action has harmed both the in‐group and an out‐group, focusing people on “self‐harm”—ways in which the in‐group has harmed itself—may elicit more collective guilt because self‐harm is less likely to be exonerated. In Study 1, American participants who focused on how the invasion of Iraq had harmed the United States expressed greater collective guilt over harm inflicted on the people of Iraq than those who focused on Iraqi suffering. Study 2 showed that this effect is due to reductions in exonerating cognitions among people focused on self‐harm. We consider the implications of these findings for intergroup reconciliation, particularly in situations where two groups have been involved in open conflict.     

Improving Women's Self‐Compassion Through an Online Program: A Randomized Controlled Trial

The benefits of self‐compassion interventions have been well documented in the counseling literature. Despite these benefits, access to such interventions remains a considerable barrier for a range of populations. We addressed the issue of limited access by using a randomized controlled trial to evaluate an online, self‐guided course on self‐compassion specifically targeted toward women. Fifty‐seven women were randomly assigned to receive immediate or delayed access to a 10‐week course designed to increase self‐compassion and reduce self‐judgment, shame, and perfectionism. Analysis of the data revealed that participants in the treatment condition experienced significant increases in self‐compassion and decreases in self‐judgment, shame, and perfectionism compared with participants in the wait‐list group. Results provide evidence that self‐compassion can be fostered in a nonclinical population of women through participation in a self‐paced online course. Related findings and potential implications, including the use of such interventions to address accessibility concerns, are discussed within the existing literature.     

Covert and overt expressions of self‐criticism and perfectionism and their relation to depression

Multiple measures of both the covert and overt expressions of self‐criticism and perfectionism have been developed. The present study examined the relation between a measure of overt self‐criticism and several measures of covert self‐criticism and perfectionism, using 59 male and 152 female university students. The study also examined the relation between these constructs and depression. The results replicated previous reports that two factors, self‐critical perfectionism and high personal standards, underlie existing measures of covert expressions. Self‐critical perfectionism and overt self‐criticism were shown to be independent predictors of depression, suggesting the importance of assessing the overt interpersonal, as well as the covert, manifestations of self‐criticism. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Uncovering the diverse cultural bases of social identity: Ingroup ties predict self‐stereotyping among individualists but not among collectivists

On what basis do people form their social identities? To investigate this issue, the present research investigates cross‐cultural differences in self‐stereotyping, a key outcome of social identification. In particular, the research tests the hypothesis that ingroup ties are a stronger predictor of self‐stereotyping among people from individualist cultures than among people from collectivist cultures. In Study 1, university students (N = 117) completed measures of ingroup ties and self‐stereotyping with respect to an intimacy group (family and friends). Consistent with predictions, ingroup ties significantly predicted self‐stereotyping among individualists but not among collectivists. Study 2 (N = 104) found a similar pattern of results among members of the global internet community who considered either an intimacy group (their friends), a task group (their work group) or a social category (their gender). These results indicate that people in individualist cultures are more likely than those in collectivist cultures to base their social identities on ingroup ties. The implications of these results are discussed in relation to self‐categorization theory's depersonalization account of social identification.     

The sexual dimorphic association of cardiorespiratory fitness to working memory in children

The present investigation examined the sexual dimorphic patterns of cardiorespiratory fitness to working memory in preadolescent children (age range: 7.7–10.9). Data were collected in three separate studies (Study 1: n = 97, 42 females; Study 2: n = 95, 45 females; Study 3: n = 84, 37 females). All participants completed a cardiorespiratory fitness assessment in addition to a specific measure of working memory (i.e. the operation span task, the n‐back task, or the Sternberg task). Results from all three samples revealed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness levels were associated with better working memory performance only for males with no such relation observed for females. In addition, the sexually dimorphic pattern was selective for the most challenging working memory conditions in each task. Together, these findings reveal new evidence that cardiorespiratory fitness is selectively related to better working memory performance for male children. This investigation provides additional insight into how interventions aimed at improving fitness may influence cognitive development differentially among preadolescent children.     

Self‐esteem discrepancies and defensive reactions to social feedback

Recent research has provided increasing evidence that discrepancies between implicit and explicit self‐esteem (SE) are related to defensiveness. However, only one pattern, called fragile SE (a combination of high explicit and low implicit SE), has been the focus of research so far. Relatively little attention has been paid to the second possible SE discrepancy (low explicit/high implicit). We propose that both types of discrepancies are maladaptive, because they indicate a lack of integration in self‐representation. We conducted two studies on the correlates of discrepant SE in the sphere of defensiveness. We hypothesized that persons with discrepant SE exhibit more defensive behaviour than individuals with congruent SE. In two student samples, explicit SE was measured by means of the Multidimensional Self‐Esteem Scale. Implicit SE was measured with the Name Letter Technique (Study 1) and an Implicit Association Test (Study 2). In Study 1 (N = 102) we examined effects of implicit and explicit SE on defensive reactions to ambiguous statements. For this purpose, we adapted the Ambiguous Statements Task (AST, Tafarodi, 1998 ), a procedure that measures participants' tendency to interpret ambiguous expressions in a positive vs negative manner. We found that the combination of low explicit SE and high implicit SE was associated with a more positive interpretation of the ambiguous statements. Study 2 (N = 87) investigated the effects of discrepant SE on reactions to SE threat in an experimental setting. The time participants spent reading positive or negative social feedback was used as an unobtrusive measure of defensiveness. We found that people with discrepant SE went through the negative feedback faster than people with congruent SE. In sum, the studies provide converging evidence that both kinds of discrepancies between implicit and explicit SE are related to defensive behaviour.     

Overcoming Negative Aspects of Perfectionism through Group Treatment

The tendency to hold and pursue excessively high standards for oneself and for others can interfere with academic achievement. Counsellors who work in university settings are often presented with students whose capabilities do not reflect their levels of achievement. This study reports on the evaluation of an eight-week group intervention designed to help university students shift from negative and often debilitating perfectionism to positive and enhancing perfectionism. The group treatment focused on changing attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and interpersonal interactions affected by perfectionism using combined cognitive-behavioral and interpersonal approaches. Standardized measures, including the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., BDI-II manual. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, 1996), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck and Steer, Beck Anxiety Inventory: Manual. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation, 1993), and the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt and Flett, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 60, 456–470, 1991a), provided data for pre- and post analysis of a treatment group (n = 30), and comparison groups of students attending group programs on career planning (n = 30) and attending psychology classes (n = 30). Results show that students participating in the treatment group significantly reduced their levels of depression, anxiety, and perfectionism in comparison to students who did not attend the treatment program. Implications of the findings suggest the importance of considering perfectionism on a continuum of negative and positive influences while helping students to address the intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of perfectionism.