Can I use TA? Should I use TA? Should I not use TA? Comparing reflexive thematic analysis and other pattern‐based qualitative analytic approaches

Thematic analysis methods, including the reflexive approach we have developed, are widely used in counselling and psychotherapy research, as are other approaches that seek to develop ‘patterns’ (themes, categories) across cases. Without a thorough grounding in the conceptual foundations of a wide variety of across‐case analytic approaches, and qualitative research more broadly—something rarely offered in counselling training—it can be difficult to understand how these differ, where they overlap, and which might be appropriate for a particular research project. Our aim in this paper is to support researchers in counselling and psychotherapy to select an appropriate across‐case approach for their research, and to justify their choice, by discussing conceptual and procedural differences and similarities between reflexive thematic analysis (TA) and four other across‐case approaches. Three of these are also widely used in counselling and psychotherapy research—qualitative content analysis, interpretative phenomenological analysis and grounded theory. The fourth—discourse analysis—is less widely used but importantly exemplifies the critical qualitative research tradition. We contextualise our comparative approach by highlighting the diversity within TA. TA is best thought of as a spectrum of methods—from types that prioritise coding accuracy and reliability to reflexive approaches like ours that emphasise the inescapable subjectivity of data interpretation. Although reflexive TA provides the point of comparison for our discussion of other across‐case approaches, our aim is not to promote reflexive TA as ‘best’. Rather, we encourage the knowing selection and use of analytic methods and methodologies in counselling and psychotherapy research.     

Introduction to the Special Section ‘Innovative counselling and psychotherapy research methods’: Defining the future of counselling and psychotherapy research

In the call for papers for this Special Issue, we sought submissions that would introduce innovative methods with the potential to shape counselling and psychotherapy research into the future. We believe that we accomplished this goal and that this issue introduces a range of valuable examples of current innovations in counselling and psychotherapy research methods. Through the review process, we encouraged authors to offer practical guidelines on how to innovatively assess and analyse change and other relevant aspects of therapy. We also guided authors to not only provide the field with an update on cutting‐edge methodology, but also describe these methods in a practice‐friendly way. As such, the Special Issue aims at becoming a building block for future practice‐friendly research in counselling and psychotherapy.     

Making use of the vignette technique to examine methods of bereavement counselling: An exploratory study

Aim: The principal objective of this small‐scale study was to examine methods of bereavement counselling because of their lack of clarity. Method: The study made use of the vignette technique along with six semi‐structured interviews analysed by means of thematic analysis. Findings: Results showed that bereavement counsellors are using a multitude of different and diverse methods of counselling, characteristic of postmodernism. Advantages of these postmodern methods are that bereavement counselling methods are rich, creative, supportive, pluralistic and attentive to otherness. However, disadvantages of these postmodern methods have led to a lack of consensus amongst experts, unclear methods and an anti‐methodological way of working by counsellors. Implications for practice: Postmodernism is inherent in bereavement counselling. As a result no two counsellors work in exactly the same way because of the difference in their background and experience similarly it can be said that no one counselling method has exclusivity due to the diverse nature of postmodernism.     

Applied pluralism in the evaluation of employee counselling

The method and major findings of a complex, 'pluralist' evaluation, which investigated the effectiveness of the counselling provision of an employee support and counselling service in a local authority education department over 22 months, are outlined. Reference is made to the underlying philosophical approach of integrated pluralist evaluation, which may represent a significant step forward from the accepted methods of triangulation. In addition to achieving predicted high satisfaction rates from clients, counsellors and clients both indicated significant improvements in all measures used. These were maintained at follow-up which took place at intervals from 1 to 18 months after counselling had ended. Reduction in absenteeism post-counselling suggested the possibility of very substantial revenue savings. Responses also indicated the acute, and often chronic, need for employee counselling provision in the education system.     

Rational-Emotive therapy and its contribution to careers counselling

While rational-emotive therapy is an influential therapeutic system in the USA, it has not received much serious consideration in Britain. Moreover, RET theorists and practitioners have not paid attention to its application to careers counselling. To correct these two situations, RET theory and practice is briefly discussed, and Crites' three-stage process model is used to show how counsellors can apply RET methods to careers counselling. Case material is presented to illustrate such applications.     

The future of Canadian counselling psychology: Doctoral students

Little is known about the overall characteristics and beliefs of Canadian counselling psychology doctoral students. An online survey was administered to 43 doctoral students across all Canadian counselling psychology programmes, representing an approximate 26% response rate. Results indicated that the average age of doctoral students in the sample was about 32 years and that the majority were women (about 77% in the sample). Additionally, findings can be taken to suggest that participants were satisfied with their choice of counselling psychology as a career. The doctoral students sampled primarily practised from an integrationist theoretical standpoint and spent very little of their practice time providing formal psychological assessment services or career counselling. Participants generally intervened through individual counselling or psychotherapy and were focused on disorder treatment rather than preventative or developmental services. Curriculum changes that should be considered from the results of this study pertain to the topics of assessment, career counselling, advocacy/media skills, professional identity development and prevention/developmental interventions. The results of this study can also be taken to predict characteristics of the next generation of Canadian counselling psychologists and the future practice of counselling psychology in Canada.     

Considering methodological integrity in counselling and psychotherapy research

Within the field of counselling and psychotherapy research, qualitative methods have been a longstanding tradition of inquiry due to the mutual interest of therapists and researchers in both internal experiences and intersubjective processes. Methodological integrity is a conceptual framework that has been advanced to increase the rigor of these methods. In this paper, we consider the value of this concept for counselling and psychotherapy researchers and reviewers. This framework guides investigators and reviewers to consider how procedures can be adapted to meet the goals of specific studies, given their characteristics and approach to inquiry. In this brief article, we exemplify the relevance and application of this concept to this field by describing the decision‐making process within the designing of a qualitative research project to investigate clients' needs within rape crisis counselling. Through this exemplar, we also provide guidance to counselling and psychotherapy researchers on considerations during the process of research review and reporting.     

“Outsiders”: How some counselling psychologists construct themselves

The identity of counselling psychology in Britain is still developing. This study aims to contribute to our understanding of what counselling psychology is through an analysis of discourses that practitioners draw on when talking about their work. Drawing on data from interviews with eight practicing counselling psychologists, we identity a “maverick” repertoire and examine how it is used by the participants. This repertoire is used to characterize counselling psychology as occupying a position outside established schools of psychological therapy. We also identify how the maverick/outsider repertoire provides solutions to problems of internal consistency within counselling psychology. We discuss implications for the future and the importance of self-awareness for the profession.     

Using Analytic Philosophy in Philosophical Counselling

ABSTRACT In the past decade, philosophers have started to use philosophical methods of counselling for everyday problems and predicaments, such as decision-making, inter-personal conflicts, occupational dissatisfaction, search for meaning, etc. This paper shows, on the basis of two case studies, how philosophical counselling can utilise analytic methods commonly used in academic philosophy, such as conceptual analysis. The paper also discusses the difference between philosophical counselling and psychological therapy.     

Visual arts in counselling adults with depressive disorders

This study provides a better understanding of using visual arts in counselling adults with depressive disorders. Three in-depth case studies were conducted in the counselling unit of a mental health hospital in Malaysia. Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied to explore three adult participants’ counselling experiences. They attended six individual counselling sessions, which included four art-making activities, and two after-session interviews, for approximately two months. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis was used to analyse the qualitative data. The findings showed that through the therapeutic use of visual arts, the participants were able to explore and express various emotions, face their problems, communicate better with themselves and the counsellor, achieve a deeper self-understanding, and make meaningful progress in counselling, even though some of them experienced a sense of uncertainty at the beginning of some art-making activities.     

Educational counselling of adults

There is increasing world-wide interest in the need for counselling of adult learners, an interest demonstrated by a recent UNESCO symposium. The work of the Educational Guidance Service for Adults, Belfast, is described, indicating the range of clients coming to the service and the methods used to help them.     

Profiling a Profession: A Victorian Survey Assessing Lay Attitudes Toward and Knowledge of Counselling Psychologists

The current study employed a mixed‐methods approach to examine perceptions towards and knowledge of counselling psychologists, including perceived differences between counselling and clinical psychologists. One hundred and fourteen adult members of the Victorian general public participated in the study and completed a 65‐item questionnaire, the Counselling Psychology Status Survey. As predicted, results from quantitative analysis showed that counselling psychologists were reported to be highly needed, valued, and respected by the current sample of Victorian residents. Respondents also reported a high level of confidence in counselling psychologists to treat various mental illnesses. Thematic analysis of qualitative textual data derived from written responses to an open‐ended question revealed that compared with clinical psychologists, counselling psychologists were understood to be less qualified, less skilled, and to work with less severe or complex client presentations. Taken together, results from this study suggest that although counselling psychology appears to occupy a positive public image, the importance of public promotion and awareness‐raising of the specialist profession of counselling psychology, and the continuing need for public education into the nature of psychological services and the qualifications, skills, and competencies of practitioners of psychological service provision, particularly compared with clinical psychology, cannot be underestimated.     

Gambling counselling in Australia: focus on cognitive counselling techniques

A number of specialised counselling services are now available to assist individuals who experience difficulties as a result of problem gambling behaviour. Clinicians within these services may utilise one or a number of counselling approaches depending on their own preferences and their assessment of the counselling style suitable for use with particular clients. The purpose of this paper is twofold. The first is to describe the range of specialised gambling counselling services now available in Australia. The second aim is to provide clinicians in the field with a range of practical cognitive counselling strategies that may be used to good effect to assist clients to reassess their attitudes towards and thoughts about gambling.     

The stresses of learning counselling: Six recent graduates comment on their personal experience of learning counselling and what can be done to reduce associated harm

This paper presents research that examines the negative and stressful aspects of learning counselling and methods for harm reduction. Using an in-depth semi-structured interviewing approach, six people who recently graduated from a UK university counselling programme have commented on their negative experiences of learning counselling and what helped or would have helped to reduce the harmful effects. This research has produced information which indicates that counselling trainees experience significant disruptions in their relationships with their family and friends; that a sizeable number of trainees report feelings of depression and or stress; and that counselling trainers have not addressed these issues effectively. The study concludes with a suggestion that an extra training component could be built into existing training frameworks that focus on the process of 'becoming a counsellor'.     

Representing narrative process in therapy: Qualitative analysis of a single case

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in an approach which views counselling and psychotherapy as being concerned with giving clients opportunities to articulate, examine and re-author aspects of their life-stories. However, most of the literature associated with this approach has been based on observations of clinical practice, and there is a need to develop more systematic research in this area. The present study uses qualitative methods to identify and categorize different types of narrative events occurring in therapy discourse. A representation is offered of the process by which experience is narrativized during therapy. The data for this analysis is drawn from an intensive study of one session of person-centred counselling. The issues involved in applying this method of qualitative analysis are discussed, and the implications of these findings for research and practice are outlined.     

Qualitatively driven mixed‐methods approaches to counselling and psychotherapy research

Many researchers and clinicians take an ‘either, or’ position regarding factors responsible for change when conducting research. Qualitatively driven mixed methods privilege the qualitative approach and offer the opportunity to generate multi‐dimensional material, permitting a more holistic insight into experiences that can be understood from a combination of epistemological and ontological stances. A qualitatively driven mixed‐methods approach apply a ‘both, and’ position when exploring the elements that produce change or that are under investigation, which can be of particular value to counselling and psychotherapy research. There are various ways of engaging with qualitatively driven mixed methods. Some designs include both qualitative and quantitative components, where the former is the core element. The secondary component may also be qualitative, known as a multimethod design. Yet, other designs mix different qualitative approaches, through the application of different qualitative analyses to the same data (pluralistic qualitative research). This paper discusses the application and value of qualitatively driven mixed methods in counselling and psychotherapy research through the presentation of two research case studies; one which mixes both qualitative and quantitative components to investigate the experiences of pain alleviation following a CBT pain management programme; and one which applies a pluralistic approach to a counselling psychology doctorate exploring the experiences and meanings attached to self‐harming. Through illustration and discussion of the case studies’ mixed‐methods approaches, this paper demonstrates that qualitatively driven mixed methods produce a more enhanced and holistic understanding into phenomena, and therefore a more balanced perspective to counselling and psychotherapy research.