Social Aggression on Television and Its Relationship to Children's Aggression in the Classroom

A survey was conducted with over 500 children in grades K‐5 to examine whether exposure to socially aggressive content was related to children's use of social aggression. The results of the survey revealed a significant relationship between exposure to televised social aggression and increased social aggression at school, but only for girls and not for boys. Although this relationship was dependent on the sex of the child, the study is the first to provide evidence that viewing social aggression on television is related to an increased tendency for elementary school children to perpetrate such behaviors in the classroom. The findings are discussed in terms of social cognitive theory and information processing theory.     

Family conflict shapes how adolescents take risks when their family is affected

Numerous studies have established that the social context greatly affects adolescent risk taking. However, it remains unexplored whether adolescents' decision‐making behaviors change when they take risks that affect other individuals such as a parent. In the current study, we sought to investigate how the social context influences risky decisions when adolescents' behavior affects their family using a formalized risk‐taking model. Sixty‐three early adolescents (M_age = 13.3 years; 51% female) played a risk‐taking task twice, once during which they could make risky choices that only affected themselves and another during which their risky choices only affected their parent. Results showed that adolescents reporting high family conflict made more risky decisions when taking risks for their parent compared to themselves, whereas adolescents reporting low family conflict made fewer risky decisions when taking risks for their parent compared to themselves. These findings are the first to show that adolescents change their decision‐making behaviors when their risks affect their family and have important implications for current theories of adolescent risk taking.     

Connections Between Violent Television Exposure and Adolescent Risk Taking

This study utilized a survey to assess television viewing and risk-taking behavior in 717 adolescents (age 11-22). Results indicated that, among adolescents, there is a link between exposure to violent television in the form of violent drama, realistic crime shows and contact sports and participation in various forms of risk taking: problem drinking, drinking and driving, delinquency (vandalizing, trespassing, truancy), reckless driving, and drug use. However, the relationship between exposure to various forms of violent television content and risk-taking behavior varies somewhat. Specifically, exposure to realistic crime shows and exposure to contact sports is positively related to risk taking; whereas, exposure to violent drama is negatively related to risk-taking behavior Predictions are made and findings discussed in terms of problem behavior theory. Implications for health messages targeting adolescents are discussed.     

Parental rearing behavior prospectively predicts adolescents’ risky decision‐making and feedback‐related electrical brain activity

The present study examined the role of parental rearing behavior in adolescents’ risky decision‐making and the brain's feedback processing mechanisms. Healthy adolescent participants (n = 110) completed the EMBU‐C, a self‐report questionnaire on perceived parental rearing behaviors between 2006 and 2008 (T1). Subsequently, after an average of 3.5 years, we assessed (a) risky decision‐making during performance of the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART); (b) event‐related brain potentials (ERPs) elicited by positive (gain) and negative feedback (loss) during the BART; and (c) self‐reported substance use behavior (T2). Age‐corrected regression analyses showed that parental rejection at T1 accounted for a unique and significant proportion of the variance in risk‐taking during the BART; the more adolescents perceived their parents as rejecting, the more risky decisions were made. Higher levels of perceived emotional warmth predicted increased P300 amplitudes in response to positive feedback at T2. Moreover, these larger P300 amplitudes (gain) significantly predicted risky decision‐making during the BART. Parental rearing behaviors during childhood thus seem to be significant predictors of both behavioral and electrophysiological indices of risky decision‐making in adolescence several years later. This is in keeping with the notion that environmental factors such as parental rearing are important in explaining adolescents’ risk‐taking propensities.     

Personality, risky driving and accident involvement among Norwegian drivers

Despite the large body of studies, the role of personality in risk research still remains debatable and unclear. The objective of this study was to identify determinants of road user behaviour and accident involvement with the aim of developing effective accident countermeasures. Examining relationships between personality, risky driving and involvement in accidents can open up the possibility of early identification of those more likely to be involved in accidents. The aim is not to influence personality as such, but to develop measures constructed for specific groups. The results are based on a self-completion questionnaire survey carried out among a sample of Norwegian drivers in year 2000 and 2001 (n=2605). The Norwegian Directorate of Public Roads financed the study. The questionnaire included measures of risky driving, accident involvement, normlessness, sensation-seeking, locus of control and driver anger. Results showed that those who scored high on sensation seeking, normlessness and driver anger reported more frequent risky driving compared to those who scored low on these variables. They were more often involved in both speeding and ignorance of traffic rules. Respondents involved in risk taking-behaviour experienced near-accidents and crashes leading to both injuries and material damage more often than other drivers.     

Cosmetic Surgery Makeover Programs and Intentions to Undergo Cosmetic Enhancements: A Consideration of Three Models of Media Effects

The recent proliferation of reality‐based television programs highlighting cosmetic surgery has raised concerns that such programming promotes unrealistic expectations of plastic surgery and increases the desire of viewers to undergo such procedures. In Study 1, a survey of 170 young adults indicated little relationship between cosmetic surgery makeover program viewing and body satisfaction or perception of risk but a small positive association with desire to undergo cosmetic surgical procedures. In Study 2, a survey of 271 young women allowed for a test of three theoretical explanations for this association. Evidence in support of cultivation theory, social cognitive theory, and social comparison theory emerged, thus highlighting the need for a more integrated theoretical model of media effects.     

Body Objectification,MTV, and Psychological Outcomes Among Female Adolescents1

In response to the American Psychological Association's Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, the present study explored the role of sexually objectifying media—in this case, music television—in a host of psychological consequences among a community sample of adolescents girls (M age = 13 years). Objectification theory posits that the consequences of sexual objectification involve the process of self‐objectification. As such, we hypothesized that music television consumption would first and foremost be associated with self‐objectification, which would, in turn, predict a number of body‐related consequences. The findings support a model in which self‐objectification mediates a direct relation between music television viewing and body esteem, dieting, depressive symptoms, anxiety, and confidence in math ability.     

Young children's television viewing and the quality of their interactions with parents: A prospective community study

Television is one of the most commonly viewed forms of media by children throughout the world. Excessive television viewing can influence the quality of children's relationships and interactions with their parents. We examined the emotional availability (EA ) of children toward their parents by assessing child responsiveness and child involvement , using a cross‐sectional and longitudinal design. We employed a large and representative community sample of Norwegian 4‐year‐olds (n = 995) who were followed up at 6 years old (n = 795). The results illustrate that, when viewing excessive amounts of television, children are less likely to be involved with their parents in ordinary toy‐play. We argue in favor of the displacement hypothesis, stating that time‐demanding technologies are negatively related to the quality of parent–child relationships because spending more time watching television will leave less time for developing nurturing social relationships.     

Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience

This study aimed to examine responses of sensation seekers concerning their tendency to take risks in driving in mortality salience. Ss completed the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking scale (SSS). Two weeks later Ss were divided into two groups; the experimental group, which was exposed to a terrifying video film dealing with consequences of risky driving and a control group with a nature video film. After watching the films, each participant was asked to complete a risk-taking inventory (RT), which referred to the extent of risk s/he would take while driving. High sensation seekers reported more risk taking in driving than sensation avoiders. Furthermore, a significant interaction was found between Mortality Salience and Sensation Seeking regarding risky driving, especially speeding. The implications of these findings on the well-established educational approaches based on terror are presented in the discussion.     

Observing Purchase‐Related Parent–Child Communication in Retail Environments: A Developmental and Socialization Perspective

In a quantitative observation study, we unobtrusively examined purchase‐related communication between 0‐ to 12‐year‐old children and their parents (N= 269 dyads) during supermarket and toy store visits. The aims of the study were to determine (a) the development of purchase‐related parent–child communication (i.e., children’s purchase influence attempts, their coercive behavior, parent‐initiated communication) and (b) the relative influence of different socialization variables (e.g., television viewing, family communication patterns) on these communication variables. Our inverted‐U hypothesis for the effect of developmental level on purchase influence attempts received support: Children’s purchase influence attempts increased until early elementary school and started to decline in late elementary school. Our inverted‐U hypothesis for the effect of developmental level on coercive behavior was also supported: Children’s coercive behavior was highest among preschoolers. With increasing age, children were more likely to be involved in the purchase decision‐making process, and parent–child communication more often resulted in a product purchase. Finally, children’s television viewing was the most important (positive) predictor of their purchase influence attempts.     

The role of executive function,personality and attitudes to risks in explaining self-reported driving behaviour in adolescent and adult male drivers

Young drivers show high levels of risky driving and are over-represented in motor vehicle crash statistics world-wide. As well as personality and attitudinal factors, high rates of risk taking during adolescence may be due to poorly developed executive functions, a result of the slow maturation of the pre-frontal cortex of the brain. This study was undertaken to investigate the roles of executive function, personality, attitudes to risk in relation to self-reported driving behaviour. Adolescent (n = 46, age 16–18 years) and adult (n = 32, 25 years and over) male drivers completed a battery of neuropsychological tests to assess general cognitive ability and executive function, and questionnaires to assess driving history, personality, attitudes to physical and psychological risk as well as questionnaires of self-reported driving behaviour (Driver risk taking and Driver Attitude Questionnaire, DAQ). The adolescent drivers showed poorer executive function, higher levels of impulsivity and risk-taking, lower levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness compared to adult drivers. Regression analyses revealed that attitudes to risk, agreeableness and working memory made unique significant contributions in explaining self-reported driving behaviour. Interestingly though, better working memory was associated with higher levels of self-reported risky driving and more accepting attitudes to risky driving. Together the findings suggest that some aspects of executive function, personality, and attitudes to risk may help to explain self-reported driving behaviour. Whether these findings are relevant to female drivers and apply to on-road driving behaviour should be the focus of future studies.     

Internet Safety and the Silver Surfer: The Relationship Between Gist Reasoning and Adults' Risky Online Behavior

Currently, fewer older adults are online compared with younger generations. However, with many new initiatives aiming to significantly increase the number of older internet users, they will increasingly be exposed to potential victimisation from internet fraud, a fundamental issue affecting all adult internet users. Despite this, little research has examined online risk‐taking across the adult lifespan or adults' reasoning about risky online behaviors. Using fuzzy trace theory, we investigated adults' online risk‐taking behavior and intentions, and whether these behaviors were related to different ways of reasoning about risk, namely, gist reasoning (using qualitative, intuitive knowledge) and verbatim reasoning (using quantitative, specific knowledge). Participants (326 adults, 18–79 years old, M_age = 49.54 years) reported their past risk‐taking behavior, future online risk intentions, gist and verbatim reasoning about online risk, sensation seeking, and time spent online. Age was negatively correlated with past risk‐taking, time online, future risk intentions, and sensation seeking. However, time spent online was positively related to future risk intentions, suggesting that spending more time using the internet could lead individuals to take more risks. Increased verbatim reasoning predicted increased intentions to take online risks, while gist reasoning predicted reduced intentions to take risks online. Our findings extend online risk research applying fuzzy trace theory to adolescents and young adults and suggest that online safety training incorporating gist‐based reasoning strategies could benefit all adults and, in particular, older generations. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Linearity Assumption in Cultivation Research

Cultivation theorists hypothesize a monotonic pattern of means across viewing subgroups, that is, that people in groups defined by higher levels of television viewing will be more likely to give the “television world” answer than will people in groups defined by lower levels of viewing. This prediction, along with the methodological practices used in conducting research on the theory, make it clear that there is an assumption of linearity that is accepted by both theorists and researchers. However, there is reason to speculate that the underlying cultivation relationship may not be linear. This study provides empirical evidence that the relationship is not linear. Because of the nonlinearity of the distribution, the selection of cut points is a critical decision that can significantly influence the results of subsequent analyses. Also, the popular use of certain statistical procedures designed to test linear relationships is also challenged.     

The Effect of Reminders of Death on Reckless Driving: A TerrorManagement Perspective

Why do young people, especially young men, engage in reckless driving despite the fact that this behavior contradicts the basic biological imperative of self-preservation? Answering this interesting and crucial question may lead to effective interventions. A series of studies, based on terror management theory, examined the effects of reminders of death on risk taking while driving. The dependent measures were either self-reported behavioral intentions of risky driving or driving speed in a car simulator. Findings showed that mortality-salience inductions led to more risky driving than the control condition only among individuals who perceived driving as relevant to their self-esteem. The introduction of positive feedback about driving eliminated this effect. The complex role of self-esteem in the process of risk taking is discussed.     

Effects of anonymous peer observation on adolescents' preference for immediate rewards

Research suggests that the presence of peers influences adolescent risk‐taking by increasing the perceived reward value of risky decisions. While prior work has involved observation of participants by their friends, the current study examined whether observation by an anonymous peer could elicit similarly increased reward sensitivity. Late adolescent participants completed a delay discounting task either alone or under the belief that performance was being observed from a neighboring room by an unknown viewer of the same gender and age. Even in this limited social context, participants demonstrated a significantly increased preference for smaller, immediate rewards when they believed that they were being watched. This outcome challenges several intuitive accounts of the peer effect on adolescent risk‐taking, and indicates that the peer influence on reward sensitivity during late adolescence is not dependent on familiarity with the observer. The findings have both theoretical and practical implications for our understanding of social influences on adolescents' risky behavior.     

Characteristics of college students who text while driving: Do their perceptions of a significant other influence their decisions?

IntroductionTexting while driving is a significant risk factor for automobile collisions. The use of cell phones is prevalent among young people and commonly reported when they drive.MethodA web-based survey of 861 college student drivers determined how texting was associated with other forms of risky driving, perceptions of risk, and their driving and texting interactions with a significant other.ResultsTexting drivers were more likely to engage in other risky driving behaviors, perceived less risk in texting and driving, felt more immune to traffic risks, and had friends who text and drive. Logistic regression analyses showed that even after adjusting for risky driving behaviors and perceived risk, texting drivers were significantly more likely to do so if they saw their significant other text and drive.ConclusionsTraffic safety campaigns need to address important social influences on this behavior.     

Risk and Prisoner's Dilemma: A Reinterpretation of Coombs' Re‐parameterization

We propose a model to measure risk in a prisoner's dilemma based on Coombs' (1973) re‐parameterization of the game as an individual risk decision‐making task that chooses between a gamble of cooperation and another gamble of defection. Specifically, we propose an index, r, to represent the risk associated with cooperation relative to defection. In conjunction with Rapoport's (1967) index of cooperation (K), our formulation of risk allows us to construct games that vary in risk (as indexed by r) while controlling for cooperativeness (as indexed by K). Following utility analysis that models risk seeking as a convex utility function and risk averse as a concave function, we predict that risk‐seeking people cooperate more in games that the cooperation choice is more risky, whereas risk‐averse people cooperate more in games that the cooperation choice is less risky. In the three studies that we varied game parameters, used different measures of risk orientation and prosocial orientation and used different experimental procedures, we found robust results supporting our predictions. Theoretical analysis of our formulation further suggests that risk and cooperativeness of a prisoner's dilemma game is not entirely independent. Games that have a higher cooperativeness index are necessarily more risky. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reward versus punishment: Reinforcement sensitivity theory,young novice drivers’ perceived risk,and risky driving

One reason that young novice drivers remain statistically over-represented in road deaths is their rate of engagement in risky driving. Prominent contributing factors include driver’s age, sex, personality, risk perception, and their driving experience. This study applied reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST, specifically reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity) to predict young novice drivers’ perceived risk and self-reported risky driving engagement, while accounting for potential influences of age, sex, and driving experience. Drivers (N = 643, 490 females, 17–25 years, M = 20.02, SD = 2.32) who held an Australian driver’s license (P1, P2, or Open) anonymously completed an online survey containing the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, the Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire, and a measure of perceived risk of driving-related behaviours. A path analytic model derived from RST showed that perceived risk had the strongest negative association with reported risky driving engagement, followed by reward sensitivity (positive association). Respondent’s age and reward sensitivity were associated with perceived risk. Age, reward sensitivity, and perceived risk were associated with reported engagement in risky driving behaviours. Driver sex only had direct paths with RST variables, and through reward sensitivity, indirect paths to perceived risk, and reported risky driving. Neither punishment sensitivity nor driving experience contributed significantly to the model. Implications and applications of the model, and the unique set of variables examined, are discussed in relation to road safety interventions and driver training.     

Television Exposure,Sleep Time,and Neuropsychological Function Among Preschoolers

We explored whether sleep time mediates the relation between preschoolers' television exposure and two indicators of neuropsychological function: executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). With a sample of 107 preschoolers and their parents, we found that heavier background television exposure and nighttime television viewing were related to fewer hours of sleep, which, in turn, was related to weaker ToM. However, sleep time did not mediate the relation between intentional television viewing and EF. In this article, we discuss the importance of understanding the mechanisms by which television exposure can affect children's neuropsychological function and offer several alternative explanations.     

A qualitative exploration of apprehended women’s experience of drink driving events

BackgroundIn Australia, drink driving remains a serious road safety issue. The few studies that have addressed drink driving behaviour amongst women often focus on aggregated statistical comparisons to men or view the concept of drink driving as part of broader criminological behaviour. In contrast, scant research has directly focused on convicted female drink drivers. The aim of this study was to explore the factors that contribute to drink driving in a cohort of women convicted for drink driving and examine why these women were unsuccessful in mitigating the risk of engaging in drink driving behaviour.MethodThe study thematically analysed the narratives of 14 women who had been apprehended and subsequently convicted of a drink driving offence in the state of Queensland (Australia). All participants were recruited by way of their attendance at a drink driving education program.ResultsOverall examination of participants’ narratives revealed drink driving behaviour derived from a complex set of processes including taking a risk, using alcohol to self-medicate and alleviate psychological distress, basing the decision to drive on subjective assessment, and past engagement in drink driving behaviour and punishment avoidance. Underpinning these themes was the participants lack of awareness about the increasing risks associated with their alcohol consumption levels, with cognisance only being achieved after apprehension.ConclusionThese findings add to the limited research addressing drink driving behaviour among women and highlight important factors to explain why women are increasingly engaging in this risky behaviour.