Alan Baron: A pioneer in translational science

Primates take longer to choose between alternatives with smaller differences in value. This effect—a particular instance of the distance effect in symbolic comparisons—has not been replicated in birds. Instead, birds appear to respond independently to each alternative, such that the latency to choose depends primarily on the alternative of highest value. Three experiments tested for the distance effect in pigeons under conditions not previously considered. Experiment 1 presented pigeons with forced‐ and binary free‐choice trials, where each alternative was one of three possible delays to reinforcement (4, 8, and 16 s). Pigeons were exposed to the choice stimuli for different amounts of time and with different sample response requirements prior to the choice response. Experiment 2 added a fourth (0‐s delay) alternative. Experiment 3 substituted the 16‐s delay with a second 4‐s delay. In all experiments, pigeons systematically chose the shortest delay to reinforcement. Latency to choose the 4‐s delay did not vary when choosing against the 8‐s or 16‐s delay, regardless of whether choice stimuli were exposed for the duration of nine pecks (Experiment 1), or whether a 0‐s delay alternative was sometimes present (Experiment 2). Latency to choose the preferred of two identical alternatives (4‐s vs. 4‐s) was shorter than the latency to choose between different alternatives (4‐s vs. 8‐s; Experiment 3); this is the opposite of a distance effect. These results show no evidence of a distance effect in pigeon choice, consistent with the hypothesis that pigeons respond independently to each choice alternative.     

Toward a science of history

The scientific status of History was compared to other sciences in the critical areas event selection, investigative operations, and theory construction. First, in terms of events studied, history is regarded as a quasi-scientific study of past events. However, viewed from the science of behavior's perspective of what historians actually do, history becomes a study of current records. As a study of currently existing records, not the non-existent past, history has potential to become a science. Second, like other scientists, historians may undertake manipulative investigations: they can locate the presence and absence of a condition in records and thereby determine its relation to other recorded phenomena. A limitation has been the lack of quantification that results from emphasis on the uniqueness of things rather than on their communality. Scientific training would facilitate viewing similar things as instances of a larger class that could be counted. Another limitation that cannot be easily overcome is the inability to produce raw data. This limitation has created problems in theoretical practices, the third area of comparison, because theoretical constructions have frequently been substituted for missing data. This problem too could be reduced through scientific training, particularly in other behavior sciences. An authentic science of history is possible.     

The early history of behavior modification of stuttering: A view from the trenches

The attitudes of 644 employers toward stuttering were studied through the use of a questionnaire which required the respondents to indicate their strenght-of- agreement to seven attitudinal statements concerning stuttering. While rejecting the suggestion that stuttering interferes with job performance, the employers agreed that stuttering decreases employability and interferes with promotion possibilities. It was concluded that although stuttering may not typically interfere with job performance, it is a significant vocationally handicapping problem.     

Impetus for a robust science of behavior: A review of Nevin's Behavioral Momentum: A scientific metaphor

Nevin provides a scientific role model, illustrating momentum in his own research and providing impetus through his effects on the scientific behavior of his students and his colleagues. I discuss his book in the context of a review of the history of the concept of extinction, I cite his introduction of signal‐detection analysis into behavior analysis as a contribution not covered in this book, I briefly consider applications, such as the potential extension to fluency procedures in education, and I critique his concept of momentum, relating it to other metaphors for maintained behavior such as the dynamics of sensory systems and robustness in biological accounts of the stability of phenotypes.     

Provincial history of science

Colonial Technology: Science and the Transfer of Innovation to Australia, by Jan Todd, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. xii, 300 pages; ill.; maps; 35 (h.b)     

Behavioral science and the Nobel Prize: a history

The Nobel Prizes began a little over a century ago, established by the last will and testament of Alfred Nobel to recognize those individuals "who. shall have conferred the greatest benefits on mankind" (R. M. Friedman, 2001, p. 13). No social science prizes were established among the original five categories, consequently behavioral research has received little recognition. Using archival records from several locations, particularly the Nobel committee records from the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm, which selects the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, this article provides a history of the scientists whose work was related to psychology and who won or lost the attempt for Nobel fame. It concludes with a discussion of the importance of behavioral science in the 21st century in the context of the subject domains of the Nobel Prizes.     

The early history of the behavior modification of stuttering: From laboratory to clinic

The knowledge of and attitudes toward stuttering of 152 Alabama vocational rehabilitation counselors were studied using the Alabama Rehabilitation Counselors' Attitudes Toward Stuttering (ARCATS) Inventory consisting of 25 true- false statements designed to assess knowledge of stuttering and 15 statements designed to assess attitudes toward stuttering. Counselors were found to perceive stuttering as being significantly vocationally handicapping and amenable to therapy and to perceive stutterers as almost always benefiting from therapy and as being good candidates for vocational rehabilitation. It was concluded that the vocational rehabilitation counselors studied hold attitudes facilitative to the rehabilitation of stutterers.     

Drug-behavior interaction history: modification of the effects of morphine on punished behavior.

Squirrel monkeys were trained to respond under a multiple fixed-interval, fixed-interval schedule in which the first response after 5 min terminated a visual stimulus in the presence of which electric shocks could occur. During one component of the schedule, correlated with one color of stimulus lights, every 30th response also produced electric shock; responding was suppressed during this component to approximately 10 to 12% of that occurring in the alternate component in which responding was not punished. In contrast to previous research, morphine (0.03 to 1.0 mg/kg) increased punished responding. Unpunished responding, however, was either not affected or decreased at doses of morphine that increased punished responding. Increases in rate of punished responding also occurred when the single-schedule punishment condition was studied alone in these animals. Subsequent experimentation, which systematically analyzed the development of the rate-enhancing effects of morphine on punished responding, involved the study of drug effects in additional monkeys trained initially under a single-schedule punishment condition. The effects of morphine on punished responding were studied before, after, and then during exposure to the multiple schedule that included a component in which responding was not punished. Increases in response rate with morphine did not occur until it was administered during exposure to the multiple schedule that included a component in which responding was not punished. As with the other monkeys, once the rate increases in punished responding occurred under the multiple schedule, these effects of morphine persisted, even when the multiple schedule was removed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Prejudice and behavior: A review

Originally it was thought that prejudiced intergroup attitudes were very closely related to negative intergroup behavior. More recently, empirical studies reveal a weak and inconsistent relationship, that discriminatory intergroup behavior is therefore largely determined by situational factors, and that it is relatively independent of an individual’s attitudes. A detailed review of this research, however, suggests that the relationship between prejudice and behavior may be much more consistent than has been thought. Moreover, although the relationship is usually not very powerful, most research has involved methodological inadequacies which would have inappropriately depressed it. Finally, it is noted that, for negative intergroup behavior to be situationally determined, does not exclude a strong relationship between it and prejudiced attitudes.     

Prejudice and behavior: A review

Originally it was thought that prejudiced intergroup attitudes were very closely related to negative intergroup behavior. More recently, empirical studies reveal a weak and inconsistent relationship, that discriminatory intergroup behavior is therefore largely determined by situational factors, and that it is relatively independent of an individual’s attitudes. A detailed review of this research, however, suggests that the relationship between prejudice and behavior may be much more consistent than has been thought. Moreover, although the relationship is usually not very powerful, most research has involved methodological inadequacies which would have inappropriately depressed it. Finally, it is noted that, for negative intergroup behavior to be situationally determined, does not exclude a strong relationship between it and prejudiced attitudes.