Evangelical ‘Enterluders’: Patronage and Playing in Reformation England

Abstract

This paper underscores the propagandist aspects of Protestant players by examining the broader patterns emerging from the University of Toronto's Records of Early English Drama project (REED). While previous scholarship has noted the wealth of anecdotal evidence pointing to drama as a mechanism for religious change, evidence emerging from the REED material suggests that the use of interludes by the evangelical establishment was more extensive and programmatic than previously thought. A survey of every patron of drama in the Reformation period indicates that those most active in promoting the evangelical cause also sponsored the most active theatre companies. The touring activities of evangelical companies mirrored the progress of the Reformation in England. During periods of Reformation advance, travelling players flourished; while payments to companies all but disappeared during Mary Tudor's reign. The content of drama remained largely religious for most of the period, and there is little reason to doubt the use of printed polemical plays by a whole host of Protestant players to propagate the new gospel.     

An Annotated Catalogue of Protestant Editions in English of Works by and Relating to Saint Augustine of Hippo, 1529-1700

Abstract

Adducing works attributed to Augustine in support of reformist doctrine dates back to Reformation beginnings, and in England early writers like Tyndale (Christian Obedience) and E. Fox (Determinations) appealed to him. In both cases, ancient authority is brought to bear on current issues. Such use of Augustine then and later is closely tied to contemporary events, making a clear understanding of the role of Augustine essential to interpretation of the period. Due to confusable names and variant spellings, an exact figure of editions of works connected with Augustine in English in the early modern era is not quite possible yet, but Early English Books Online (TCP) suggests up to 1000. The catalogue here is an annotated list of forty-four separate works in ninety-six editions which can fairly be described as ‘Protestant Augustinian'. These are either translations of his works, or texts substantially based on his works. Included is an appendix of a further ninety-four Protestant works in 209 editions in which a significant Augustinian element can be detected, a summary table of the pattern of publication of the items listed, and a brief survey of Augustine's English Protestant readership.     

Educational Attainment and Cohort Change Among Conservative Protestants, 1972–2004

A growing literature examines how conservative Protestants have made status gains relative to mainline Protestants over the past three decades. The results of these studies are inconclusive: by some measures conservative Protestants have achieved socioeconomic parity, in other accounts significant discrepancies remain. This article examines the relationship between religion of origin and educational attainment, highlighting the significance of both religious background (rather than adult affiliations) and cohort change in understanding religious stratification. The findings are somewhat mixed: while conservative Protestants born since 1960 are no less likely to finish high school than their mainline counterparts, the negative effect of a conservative Protestant background on college completion remains virtually unchanged for cohorts born before 1940, between 1940 and 1959, and between 1960 and 1972, even when controlling for family background. Conservative Protestants are keeping pace with the educational gains made by mainline Protestants in the postwar era, but other factors associated with a conservative Protestant background still exert a negative influence on educational attainment.     

Hamlet and the Soul-Sleepers

ABSTRACT

The article argues that the soliloquy, ‘To be, or not to be,’ in Shakespeare’s Hamlet is informed by soul-sleeping: the belief that on its separation from the body at death, the soul enters an unconscious state typically described as sleep or a sleep-like stupor, in which it remains until wakened and joined with the resurrected body, and then assessed at the Last Judgment. The doctrine was advocated in some of Luther’s works of the 1520s and 1530s and found acceptance among some early English Protestants, but was destined to be repudiated by later Protestant orthodoxy, and was universally condemned by mainstream Protestant thinking of Shakespeare’s day. The article surveys the history of this heterodoxy in England, demonstrates its continuing significance in the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth century, elucidates the references to the doctrine in Hamlet’s soliloquy, and discusses their relevance to the broader understanding of the religious subtext of the play.     

Presidential Appointments and Religious Stratification in the United States, 1789–2003

In America's colonial period, the “Protestant Establishment” (Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians) had more access to political power than “Other Colonial Elites” (Quakers and Unitarians), “Other Protestants” (e.g., Baptists and Methodists), and “Others” (e.g., Catholics, Jews, and people with no religious affiliation). To what extent has this pattern of religious stratification persisted and/or changed over the course of U.S. history? New data on the religious affiliations of U.S. presidents, cabinet members, and justices on the Supreme Court indicate that the Protestant Establishment and Other Colonial Elites are not as dominant as they once were but continue to be overrepresented in the White House, in the cabinet, and on the Supreme Court. Other Protestants and Others have made noteworthy gains but continue to be underrepresented in most spheres of national political life. Presidents from all religious strata are more likely to appoint people who belong to the Protestant Establishment than any other religious stratum. Other Protestants and Others are most likely to appoint religious outsiders. Thus, political appointments are a means by which religious stratification both persists and changes.     

The Protestant Reformation in the Low Countries: Developments in Twentieth-Century Historiography

Abstract

The twentieth-century historiography of the Protestant Reformation in the Netherlands (1520-1620) reflects four major shifts in approach: from a partisan or compartmentalized to a neutral and from a chiefly theological to an integrated approach, from a national to an international perspective, and from a focus on the national to one on the local and regional level. Moreover, the increasing multidisciplinarity within the field has resulted in a broadening of the range of sources and a discussion on the academic position of church history. These shifts mirror contemporary socio-cultural changes, such as depillarization, ecumenism, and internationalization. The concept developed by Juliaan Woltjer (1962) of a large and heterogenuous middle group of ‘Protestantizing’ Catholics between small groups of fervent Protestants and conservative Catholics caused a watershed in the research. These moderate Catholics proved a significant factor in local politics, depending on the extent to which they were loyal to the church leaders or allowed themselves to be driven into the arms of the Protestants by the unbending authorities. Woltjer initiated ongoing research into the interaction between church and state and into the fundamental multiformity and the ‘fourth stream’ in the Dutch Reformation: the amalgam of spiritualist objectors to institutionalized religiosity.     

The Many Meanings of the Only Christ

The intertwining of reflection about Christ and personal experience of Jesus has been at the heart of the matter from the start of the Reformation. Luther's Christology unites the transcendent and the intimate; it is Christ alone, Solus Christus, who mediates God's presence and promise to the world. This becomes one of the “solas” of the Reformation and the one to which this volume of Dialog is dedicated. This introduction considers the variety of ways theology has described the primary experience of Christ; we will consider how Christ has been theologically presented in terms of love, liberation, creativity, co‐sufferer, and holy presence. In addition, within the last century, one can see Christologies taking on universal or particular forms. The universal approach sees Christ in, with and under all the world, whereas the more “particular” forms connect to the singularity of Christ or Jesus as the sole locus of revelation of God in history or today. This introduction also explores the contemporary debate about the meaning of the cross and atonement in relation to the understanding of Christ as savior.     

Revisiting the Reformation—Shakespeare and Fletcher's King Henry VIII

Abstract

This paper looks afresh at William Shakespeare's and John Fletcher's Henry VIII. The piece, while obsessed with truth, makes no attempt to define the nature of that truth—and truth is closely related to the issue of the Reformation. Henry VIII's role is questioned. The terms ‘Lutheran’ and ‘heretic’ appear as by-words to describe the threat of up-and-coming new influences around the king. The opposition of the Catholic Wolsey and the Protestant Cranmer in the play is all-important. Wolsey emerges as somewhat reformed from his disgrace. Cranmer, like Wolsey, is demonized; however his prophecy at the end of the play is highly significant. Prophecy in Tudor England tended to be subversive and part of the implications of Cranmer's prophecy are that James should model himself on Elizabeth. However, Cranmer's prophecy also announces that Elizabeth, ever a virgin, will manage to engender her successor, King James. As the play is about to close, Cranmer's prophecy about the reign of Elizabeth I and that of James I cannot dispel the impression that Henry VIII's reformist intentions remain inconclusive. Shakespeare, it seems, never veered in his view that religious reformations are not ‘once and for all events'. Something has happened that has altered the world, but the full meaning of these events is denied.     

Proclaiming the Passion: Popular Drama and the Passion Tradition in Luther's Germany

Abstract

This article examines Martin Luther's opinions on popular drama, in particular his views on Carnival plays, Corpus Christi plays, and Passion-tide performances. A consideration of key works by the Lutheran playwright, Joachim Greff (1510-1552), provides an insight into the development of Lutheran biblical drama from its beginnings. It accordingly challenges the consensus that Luther objected to, and actively prevented, the performances of Protestant dramatizations in Reformation Germany of Christ's Passion and the Resurrection.     

Comparing Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians’ Religious and Political Beliefs Across Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa

This article compares the political correlates of Renewalist Christianity in Latin America and sub-Saharan Africa (N = 44,832). Renewalists include Pentecostals and Charismatic members of Mainline Protestant and Catholic churches. Though rarely studied comparatively, Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa boast the largest Renewalist populations worldwide. Scholars have noted that the religious and political beliefs of Renewalists differ from other Christians, but existing studies either treat Renewalists as a single category or focus on Pentecostals while pooling Charismatic and non-Charismatic Catholics and Protestants as denominational blocks. Using multilevel mixed-effects models, this article first confirms that Renewalists’ religious and political beliefs differ from those of non-Renewalist Christians. Importantly, this cautions against the ubiquitous aggregation of Charismatic and non-Charismatic Catholics (and Protestants) in statistical analyses. Additionally, we theorize and evaluate differences between Renewalists and the role of regional context. Religious differences between Pentecostals and Charismatics, we show, are much larger in Latin America than in Sub-Saharan Africa.     

Ulster,God's People,and the Interplay between Old Testament and Calvinistic Conceptions of Covenant

This article addresses the theological realities behind the relationship between the Reverend Ian Paisley and the Ulster Protestant people. In his capacity as both moderator of the Free Presbyterian Church and leader of the Democratic Unionist Party, Paisley has been vocal in his defence of the Protestant constitution. He has also opposed any development which he believed amounted to a Protestant state softening its attitude towards Roman Catholicism. His behaviour in these areas can be understood in terms of an Old Testament-type covenantal understanding of a community's relationship with God. However, as a Calvinist, Paisley firmly adheres to the idea of ‘the elect’ who consist of those individuals whom God has chosen to be saved. This spiritual covenant between God and those predestined to receive salvation is not the preserve of any particular ethnic community and as such does not lend itself to the idea that Ulster Protestants have a special relationship with God, irrespective of Paisley's rhetoric.     

Value and Obligation Once More

In Understanding Moral Obligation (2012), Robert Stern sets out to provide a fresh interpretation of the role of autonomy in Kant's moral philosophy and attempts to rectify J. B. Schneewind's standard account in The Invention of Autonomy (1998). While Stern agrees that Kant's resort to autonomy is at the basis of a constructivist account of moral obligation, he claims that autonomy plays no role in Kant's theory of value, such that, in this respect, Kant remains a realist. Accordingly, Stern characterizes Kant's moral philosophy as a “hybrid” view because he sees it as involving a compromise between realism with regard to value and constructivism with regard to obligation. Stern's interpretation relies on a sharp distinction between value and obligation. The purpose of the present article is to question Stern's reliance on that rigid distinction, which involves intermixing theoretical and practical reason and assumes a distorted view of human agency.     

SONYA & RASKÓLNIKOV – TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE ORIGIN OF BARTH'S DOCTRINE OF SIN AND GRACE1

This paper examines the origin of Barth's understanding of sin and grace in his reading of Dostoevsky in 1915. It is essentially the theological portrait of Sonya & Raskólnikov (Crime & Punishment) that regrounds Barth's understanding of sin and grace in an orthodox forensic model, which in turn develops into the mature doctrine we see in Die Kirchliche Dogmatik IV. The young Barth is exposed to many influences in his move away from nineteenth‐century neo‐Protestant liberal theology (characterized by a sociological‐humanistic model of sin). Mediated by his theological colleague Eduard Thurneysen, Dostoevsky is one such influence amongst many. Barth's reading has a profound effect on him: sin becomes defined by and in relation to God –eritis sicut deus. This sublapsarian perspective can then be discerned in his seminal paper ‘Die Gerechtigkeit Gottes’, delivered within months of his reading of Crime & Punishment, particularly in the Dostoevsky motif of the Tower of Babel (this reading occurs five to seven years prior to the generally accepted period of the influence of Dostoevsky). Barth's understanding then develops through his study of Romans (Der Römerbrief ) and by rediscovering a traditional approach in the Reformed Confessions in the 1920s; however, it is his reading of Crime and Punishment that initiates this model of sin and grace.     

Cardinal Wolsey: A Life in Renaissance Europe by Stella Fletcher

Abstract

Before his flight north to teach theology in many of the leading centres of the Reformation, Peter Vermigli Martyr was, among other things, a member of the Lateran Congregation of Canons Regular of St. Augustine (Austin canons). Much Vermigli scholarship has been dedicated to exploring the continuing intellectual imprint of Vermigli’s education and years in Italy on his Protestant theology, viz. Augustinianism, Aristotelianism, and Humanism. However, less has been said about the continuing influence of his almost twenty-eight-year career as a canon regular (1514–1542). Many have noted that the books that he read in Italy still played a major positive role in his life as a Reformed theologian and churchman. Can the same be said of ‘monastic’ practice and spirituality? After clarifying Vermigli’s experience of the consecrated, conventual life in Italy, this essay will explore his understanding of it after his conversion to the Reformation. We will note both his more critical comments about Roman Catholic religious life and how he continued to be influenced by it.     

Subjection and Companionship: The French Reformed Marriage

Abstract

This paper examines the relationship between Reformation ideals of gender and sexuality with the reality of Reformed life in France in the late sixteenth century. Centring on the theory and practice of marriage, the paper examines Jean Calvin's discourse on marriage, noting his significant departure from pre-Reformation concepts of sexuality and his affirmation of companionship in the conjugal bond. Yet, the author also highlights the significant complications with, or even detractions from, this model inherent in Calvin's theology of the Fall, and his understanding of ‘subjection'. These strands of Reformed theory are then compared with two cases drawn from the registers of the consistories, or church courts, of two Protestant towns in southern France, in 1578 and 1595. The findings suggest that ideas of subjection and companionship, though helpful perhaps in the theory of marriage, rarely began to encompass the colourful and messy realities of daily life among the Huguenots.