From top gun to the daily grind: contextualizing psychological contract breach for military pilots

ABSTRACT

This study expands our understanding of employee reactions to psychological contract (PC) breach by contextualizing the relationship between PC breach and feelings of violation in a European military setting through the study of strong commitment to specific career goals, high managerial turnover, lack of clarity about the perceived responsibility and controllability of PC breach, as well as aviation restrictions. Based on interviews with 41 pilots, we found that two factors – passion for job and professional commitment – which have not been a strong focus in extant research, play critical roles in the processes involved in employee PC breach reactions. We further contribute to the literature by demonstrating when, why, and where perceptions of PC breach influence exit, loyalty, voice, and neglect reactions in a military setting (e.g., we found that certain reactions, such as neglect, are restricted due to the potential safety consequences of said reactions). This research charts new directions for psychological contract research in which more attention is placed on the context within which psychological contract processes develop and change. We provide insights to practitioners and discuss implications, limitations, and future research directions.     

心理契约破坏与员工建言行为的关系：领导成员交换的调节效应

采用问卷调查法,以中国移动广东分公司的253名员工为研究对象,考察心理契约破坏、领导成员交换与员工建言行为的关系,并检验领导成员交换在二者之间的调节作用。层次回归分析结果表明：（1）心理契约破坏与员工建言行为呈显著负相关;（2）领导成员交换与员工建言行为呈显著正相关;（3）领导成员交换显著调节心理契约破坏与员工建言行为之间的关系。当领导成员交换质量较佳时,心理契约破坏与员工建言行为之间的负向关系较弱。     

The impact of gender and sex-role orientation on responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships

Three studies were designed to examine the relationships among gender, sex role orientation, and responses to dissatisfaction in close relationships. Four ways of reacting to dissatisfaction were explored: (a) exit — ending or threatening to end the relationship; (b) voice — activity and constructively attempting to improve conditions; (c) loyalty — passively but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve; and (d) neglect — passively allowing conditions to deteriorate. Study 1 assessed generalized responses among university students; Study 2 assessed generalized responses among adults residing in the local community; and Study 3 assessed response tendencies among lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual women and men. Greater psychological femininity was consistently associated with greater tendencies to respond to relationship problems with voice and loyalty. However, there was little evidence of a link between level of femininity and tendencies to respond with exit and neglect. Greater psychological masculinity was associated with lesser tendencies toward voice and loyalty, and there was some evidence of a link between high psychological masculinity and tendencies toward exit and neglect. Gender was not consistently related to response tendencies, though there was very weak evidence that in comparison to females, males may be more likely to engage in exit and neglect responses.The authors wish to express their gratitude to Randall James, Chip Mainous, and Leisa Maxwell for their help in conducting these studies, and to the Gay and Lesbian University Students Organization for their help in conducting Study 3. We also thank Dr. David Lowery for useful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

员工为何沉默:领导权力距离倾向与员工调控焦点的跨层次交互作用

基于跨层次的调节-中介模型,检验了员工沉默的影响因素、中介变量及作用边界。来自82个团队447名员工的数据表明:(1)领导权力距离倾向与员工沉默行为显著正相关。在这一关系中,建言有用感起完全中介作用,心理安全感起部分中介作用,且控制建言有用感后,心理安全感的中介效应不再显著;(2)员工的促进焦点会增强"权力距离倾向→建言有用感→沉默行为"间接效应,防御焦点会减弱"权力距离倾向→心理安全感→沉默行为"间接效应。结论有助于揭示员工沉默的产生机制。     

Conscientiousness and reactions to psychological contract breach: a longitudinal field study

The authors examined the role of employee conscientiousness as a moderator of the relationships between psychological contract breach and employee behavioral and attitudinal reactions to the breach. They collected data from 106 newly hired employees within the 1st month of employment (Time 1), 3 months later (Time 2), and 8 months after Time 1 (Time 3) to observe the progression through contract development, breach, and reaction. Results suggest that conscientiousness is a significant moderator for 4 of the 5 contract breach-employee reaction relationships examined (turnover intentions, organizational loyalty, job satisfaction, and 1 of 2 facets of job performance). Specifically, employees who were lower in conscientiousness had more negative reactions to perceived breach with respect to turnover intentions, organizational loyalty, and job satisfaction. In contrast, employees who were higher in conscientiousness reduced their job performance to a greater degree in response to contract breach. Future research directions are discussed.     

心理契约破裂、工作满意度与建言行为-神经质的调节作用

摘要：通过对551名企业员工问卷调查,研究心理契约破裂、工作满意度与建言行为的关系,并探讨人格特征的神经质维度在以上关系中的调节作用。结果发现：（1）心理契约破裂感知与建言行为显著负相关。（2）工作满意度在心理契约破裂感知与建言行为关系中起部分中介作用;（3）神经质显著调节了心理契约破裂通过工作满意度影响建言行为这一路径。     

高绩效工作系统对员工心理契约破裂的影响:一个跨层的被调节中介

对北京、上海、山东、辽宁等地39家企业的52名人力资源经理和253名员工进行配对问卷调查,用跨层次分析方法,考察了高绩效工作系统(HPWS)对员工心理契约破裂的影响及其作用机制。研究发现:组织实施的HPWS(O-HPWS)与员工心理契约破裂显著负相关,员工体验的HPWS(E-HPWS)在这一过程中起完全中介作用;互动公平氛围调节了O-HPWS与E-HPWS的关系,且进一步调节了上述中介作用。     

The Moderating Effect of Machiavellianism on the Psychological Contract Breach–Organizational Identification/Disidentification Relationships

Purpose

We explore whether Machiavellianism—a personality trait which describes the extent to which individuals ignore values and ethical considerations when the ends justify the means—will influence their responses to their employing organizations’ failure to fulfil promised obligations (psychological contracts). Specifically, we draw on psychological contracts theory and the group value model to argue that Machiavellianism will moderate the relationships between psychological contract breach and (1) organizational identification; and (2) organizational disidentification.

Design/Methodology/Approach

We tested our hypotheses in a study of 262 employees from various organizations at two points in time.

Findings

We found that psychological contract breach was negatively related to organizational identification and positively related to organizational disidentification. Furthermore, employees with higher levels of Machiavellianism tended to disidentify with their organizations to a greater extent (at Time 2) in response to psychological contract breach (at Time 1) than did employees with low levels of Machiavellianism. Machiavellianism did not moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and organizational identification.

Implications

Our study contributes to extant research exploring the importance of Machiavellianism in the workplace. Specifically, we show that employees with high levels of Machiavellianism are more likely to disidentify in response to psychological contract breach but do not tend to identify to a lesser degree.

Originality/Value

This study builds on the extant research exploring individual differences in the psychological contract dynamics by considering Machiavellianism as a moderator of the breach–outcome relationship.     

When Bureaucrats Get the Blues: Responses to Dissatisfaction Among Federal Employees

Rusbult and Farrell's general model of responses to job dissatisfaction is utilized to assess reactions to declining satisfaction among public sector employees. Four general categories of response-exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect-are described and explored. Data from the "Federal Employee Attitude Survey, 1979" were examined to evaluate the predictive ability of the Rusbult and Farrell model. Consistent with their model, higher levels of employee satisfaction and greater degree of investment size encouraged tendencies toward voice and loyalty while discouraging exit and neglect. Also, higher quality job alternatives promoted exit and voice while inhibiting neglectful tendencies. Contrary to predictions, better alternatives also encouraged loyalist responding. The implications of these findings in light of increasing dissatisfaction in the federal bureaucracy are discussed.     

道德领导与员工建言：一个调节-中介模型的构建与检验

近年来, 研究者就如何激发员工公开讲出自己的观点、意见和问题进行了大量的探索。其中, 道德领导对员工建言的效应受到了越来越多研究的关注。在以往研究的基础上, 本研究构建了一个调节-中介模型以探讨道德领导影响员工建言的中介心理机制及其边界条件。根据社会交换理论和社会信息加工理论, 本文分别提出两种不同的中介变量-- 责任知觉和心理安全感-- 来解释道德领导与员工建言之间的关系。在此基础上, 本研究进一步假设权力距离会正向调节变量之间的间接关系。通过对某一零售企业239名员工的两阶段调查, 我们对以上研究假设进行了检验, 结果总体上支持了本研究的理论预期。本研究的发现有利于我们了解道德领导影响建言行为的心理机制, 指导管理者采取有针对性的措施, 以期有效地管理企业中的员工建言行为。     

The relationship between psychological contract breach and employee deviance: The moderating role of hostile attributional style

This study investigated the main effects and the interaction effects of psychological contract breach and hostile attributional style on employee deviance (i.e., interpersonal deviance and organizational deviance). Data were collected from 233 employees and their supervisors in eight electronic companies in Taiwan. Results demonstrate that psychological contract breach related positively to both interpersonal and organizational deviance. Psychological contract breach did not have a stronger effect on organizational deviance than on interpersonal deviance. Hostile attributional style had interactive effects on the relationships between psychological contract breach and the two forms of employee deviance. Specifically, the higher the hostile attributional style, the stronger the positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee deviance. This study contributes to the existing literature on reactions to psychological contract breach. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of the study results and future research directions.     

人力资源实践对员工创新行为的影响：心理契约破裂的中介作用及上下级沟通的调节作用

本研究选取了影响员工创新行为的组织（人力资源管理实践）、个体（对心理契约破裂的感知）及领导因素（上下级沟通）,通过402名企业员工的问卷调查,采用有调节的中介研究设计,对人力资源实践影响员工创新行为的机制进行研究。结果发现：（1）人力资源管理实践水平与员工创新行为正相关;（2）心理契约破裂在人力资源管理实践与创新行为关系间起部分中介作用;（3）上下级沟通水平调节了心理契约破裂与创新行为的关系,也调节了心理契约破裂对人力资源实践与创新行为关系的中介作用。     

Impact of attachment style on reactions to accommodative dilemmas in close relationships

Four studies examined reactions to accommodative dilemmas in ongoing close relationships, exploring the association between adult attachment style—secure, avoidant, and anxious-ambivalent—and four possible modes of reaction—exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Consistent with predictions, it was shown that which close partners enact potentially destructive behaviors, insecurely attached individuals tend to react in a more defensive and destructive manner. Specifically, in comparison to secure individuals, insecure individuals were more likely to react to accommodative dilemmas with exit and neglect, and were less likely to react with voice. Contrary to predictions, individuals with avoidant and anxious-ambivalent styles did not differ in their reactions to accommodative dilemmas. The implications of these findings for understanding reactions to emotionally threatening interpersonal situations are discussed.     

辱虐管理与员工创造力：心理契约破坏和中庸思维的不同作用

近年来, 辱虐管理与员工创造力的关系受到越来越多研究者的关注。在以往研究的基础上, 本研究构建了一个有调节的中介作用模型, 以探讨中国文化情境下辱虐管理影响员工创造力的中介心理机制及边界条件。采用多阶段-多来源的策略, 以93名主管和369名员工为对象, 通过多水平结构方程建模技术对三阶段主管-员工配对调查所获取的数据进行分析, 结果表明：主管的辱虐管理行为会通过心理契约破坏的中介作用, 对员工创造力产生间接的消极影响; 但该负向的间接关系的强度对高中庸思维者而言较弱。本研究有助于揭示辱虐管理影响员工创造力的心理机制及边界条件, 研究结果对企业员工创造力及创新行为的管理实践也有一定启示。     

More than a feeling: discrete emotions mediate the relationship between relative deprivation and reactions to workplace furloughs

A key insight from investigations of individual relative deprivation (IRD) is that people can experience objective disadvantages differently. In this study, university faculty (N = 953) who reported greater IRD in response to a mandatory furlough (i.e., involuntary pay reductions) were more likely to (a) voice options designed to improve the university (voice), (b) consider leaving their job (exit), and (c) neglect their work responsibilities (neglect), but were (d) less likely to express loyalty to the university (loyalty). Consistent with the emotions literature, (a) anger mediated the relationship between IRD and voice, (b) fear between IRD and exit, (c) sadness between IRD and neglect, and (d) gratitude between IRD and loyalty. IRD was inversely associated with self-reported physical and mental health via these different emotional pathways. These results show how discrete emotions can explain responses to IRD and, in turn, contribute to organizational viability and the health of its members.     

心理契约破坏对员工态度与行为的影响

心理契约破坏是指在雇佣关系中员工对组织未能履行的责任或承诺的认知评价。本文从概念上区分了心理契约破坏与心理契约违背, 然后从直接影响和间接影响(中介效应与调节效应)两方面回顾了国内外有关心理契约破坏对员工工作态度与行为影响的实证研究, 并对研究方法、理论依据存在的不足进行评述, 提出未来的研究应该：(1)基于中国的文化背景, 开发适合中国企业的心理契约量表; (2)从组织-员工双向视角考察心理契约破坏对双方影响的的动态过程。     

Psychological contract breach and workplace deviance: Does emotional intelligence matter?

This study investigated the influence of emotional intelligence on the relationship between psychological contract breach and workplace deviance with feelings of violation. The participants were 232 employees of a Nigerian public sector organisation (125 males and 107 females). The employees completed measures of workplace deviance, psychological contract breach, feelings of violation, and emotional intelligence. Results of the moderated hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that psychological contract breach was positively related to feelings of violation and workplace deviance. Emotional intelligence significantly buffered the negative effect of psychological contract breach on feelings of violation and workplace deviance. This implies that emotionally intelligent employees who perceived contract breach are less likely to experience feelings of violation and engage in workplace deviance. Emotional regulation appears to reliably moderate between breach-outcome relationships.     

Deleterious Consequences of Change in Newcomers’ Employer-Based Psychological Contract Obligations

Purpose

This study examines the issue of change in newcomers’ employer-based psychological contract obligations over time, viewing change as a potentially important determinant of perceived contract breach and subsequent employee attitudes and behaviors.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Data were collected using a three-wave longitudinal design from newly hired faculty members (N = 106).

Findings

Newcomers’ perceptions of employer-based relational obligations significantly decreased during their first year on the job. Newcomers reacted negatively to these changes, subsequently reporting increased contract breach and more negative work attitudes (i.e., increased turnover intentions and reduced job satisfaction and organizational loyalty).

Implications

This study provides evidence of the negative effects of perceived changes to a newcomer’s psychological contract. Practitioners should implement interventions to ensure a realistic set of psychological contract obligations are developed from the start in order to minimize the likelihood that newcomers will modify these obligations downward; and, therefore, experience these negative attitudes toward the organization.

Originality/Value

Drawing from the realistic job preview and socialization literatures, this study examines a topic that has received little empirical attention in the extant psychological contract research, yet has important implications to the management of employees’ psychological contracts. Using both a three-wave longitudinal field design and a more rigorous statistical analysis for assessing change (i.e., latent growth curve modeling), we add a unique contribution to the extant research by identifying the negative consequences of psychological contract change on newcomers’ subsequent work perceptions and attitudes.     

What’s in a word? Using construal-level theory to predict voice endorsement

ABSTRACT

Voice endorsement is a pivotal means by which employees can influence leadership processes and the organization at large. Up till now, research on voice endorsement has lacked unified theoretical frameworks that can shed light on antecedents of voice endorsement in a more integrative way as well as help identify new and relevant antecedents in a systematic and theory-based manner. We propose that construal-level theory can serve as one such unifying framework and showcase this potential by applying it to voice endorsement. Drawing on construal-level theory we propose that when an employee frames his/her voice messages in a manner that is compatible with the psychological distance between the employee and the supervisor, the supervisor will find the employee’s voice messages easier to process and, consequently, will be more likely to endorse them. Three experiments using different manipulations of voice message frame and psychological distance, and a mini meta-analysis of the three experiments, provide support for our construal compatibility hypothesis and initial evidence for the experienced ease-of-processing logic. We discuss how our construal-level approach to voice endorsement can shed light on previous findings as well as open up new avenues for future research.     

无边界职业生涯时代的就业能力:一种新的心理契约

在无边界职业生涯时代,以雇员忠诚换取就业保障为特征的心理契约,正逐步被以绩效换取就业能力为特征的新的心理契约所取代。基于就业能力的心理契约管理要求组织通过沟通了解员工的期望和态度,给员工以更多的知识积累和学习机会,实施合理的组织策略,提升员工的就业能力。