A functional analysis of obsessive-compulsive problems with related therapeutic procedures

This report describes the application of a functional analysis to obsessions and compulsions. The approach emphasizes a search for the independent variables which maintain obsessive-compulsive behavior in the individual client: then therapeutic procedures are designed to counteract the specific maintaining variables. The application, and outcome, of this approach to two children and one adult is described.     

People in groups: Dynamic and therapeutic aspects

The author differentiates between a sociological-interactional (horizontal) axis and a psychological-motivational (vertical) axis in the group, and discusses the socio- and psychodynamics both of and in the group from each of these points of view. In group therapy, five phases are described: 1) exploratory contact; 2) regression; 3) catharsis; 4) insight; and 5) social learning. Group psychotherapy with large diagnostically heterogeneous groups in a hospital setting, small diagnostically homogeneous groups, and group discussions with patients' relatives are all described. In addition, attention is paid to experiential psychodynamic group process groups (analytic self-experience groups), which provide young psychotherapists with the opportunity to gain insight into both groups and the psychodynamics stimulated within this framework. The training of group therapists should include, after academic studies, clinical experience, individual psychotherapeutic training, an experiential group, cotherapy, group therapeutic work under expert supervision, and theoretical training.     

Parents, peer groups, and other socializing influences

Three propositions that are central to J. R. Harris's group socialization theory (1995, 1998) are considered in this review. These propositions are as follows: (a) Parental behaviors have no long-term effects on children's psychological characteristics, (b) peer groups are the primary environmental influence on psychological functioning, and (c) dyadic relationships are situation-specific and do not generalize. The evidence that J. R. Harris has outlined in support of each of these propositions is reviewed, as is additional empirical research not considered by J. R. Harris. Serious limitations to each proposition are identified. The available evidence is more consistent with a model of multiple socialization agents. An expanded research agenda that permits a more definitive test of J. R. Harris's propositions and social relationship theory is proposed.     

The aha effect in groups and other dynamic learning contexts

The aha effect is a memory advantage for initially ambiguous stimuli (e.g., "The notes were sour because the seam split.") that are subsequently resolved ("Bagpipe") over stimuli that are comprehensible from the outset (see P M. Auble, J. J. Franks, & S. A. Soraci, 1979; T. W. Wills, S. A. Soraci, R. A. Chechile, & H. A. Taylor, 2000). The authors examined the influence of learning context on the aha effect by manipulating whether generative tasks were completed in a group setting or alone. In Experiment 1, participants in a group context either discussed difficult aha sentences, or overheard the discussion. In Experiments 2 and 3, lone participants were exposed to the sentences, and either spoke their thoughts aloud or thought silently. Participants in a group context did, as predicted, exhibit the aha global deletion of quotation marks effect. Moreover, in all experiments an aha effect was found for the active, speaking condition only. The authors discuss implications for generative learning and collaborative discourse processes.     

Of needles and skinned knees: children's coping with medical procedures and minor injuries for self and other.

Children participated in four role-plays designed to assess what the children themselves would do and what they would suggest a friend should do when encountering a medical procedure and a minor injury. Open-ended responses were coded into an empirically derived continuum suggested by past research. Similar responses were given to cope with medical procedures and injuries. However, children suggested more reactive coping strategies (e.g., cry, pull away) for themselves and more proactive responses (e.g., think of something fun, take deep breaths) for friends. This finding questions the assumption that children choose the most effective coping strategy in their repertoire when they themselves confront an aversive stimulus, suggesting that preparation for invasive procedures should include motivational components.     

Big Gods and other watcher mechanisms in the formation of large groups

Norenzayan's effort to integrate genetic and cultural evolution is a welcome advance over previous efforts, as is the attention he devotes to different levels of analysis from cognitive mechanisms to large group interactions. The scope of Norenzayan's argument, however, is bound to leave many scholars of religion feeling uneasy. The content of his model, which is most likely over specified, will need further testing in light of historical evidence. Comparison of Big Gods with Robert Bellah's Religion in Human Evolution (2011) highlights some of the choices Norenzayan made in designing his model and suggests ways it could be elaborated. Historians of religion who would like to help test his model could keep an eye out for ‘watcher mechanisms’ that might play more of a role than ‘moralizing Big Gods’ in some traditions and, thus, potentially offer an alternative route to large, anonymous, yet stable groups.     

Put yourself in my wheelchair: Perspective-taking can reduce prejudice toward people with disabilities and other stigmatized groups

This study aimed to compare perspective-taking with a hypothetical target and perspective-taking occurring during a real interaction with an outgroup member in reducing prejudice toward people with disabilities and other groups (e.g., immigrants, homosexual people), via increased empathy. We adopted an experimental design with two treatment groups (Hypothetical target vs. Real target) and one control group (no intervention), one pretest and two posttest measures. Participants, who were 437 students aged 11–17 years (M = 14.28; SD = 1.17), were randomly assigned to the various conditions on a classroom basis. Perspective-taking was facilitated asking participants to travel in a wheelchair on a path that simulated a real pavement in the presence (or not) of an individual with a motor disability. Findings showed that perspective-taking in the presence of a real target was more effective in reducing prejudice toward people with disabilities than perspective-taking task without encountering an outgroup member. Perspective-taking with a hypothetical target was not sufficient to increase participants' empathy toward people with disabilities, which instead was enhanced when the task was performed at the presence of a real member of that group. Positive effects produced by perspective-taking (with both a hypothetical and a real target) were transferred to immigrants and homosexuals. These findings suggest that, when possible, perspective-taking in the presence of the target, which can improve empathy by favoring a two-way exchange process, is highly recommended to improve attitudes toward different stigmatized groups, not necessarily targeted by the intervention.     

Structured role assignment and other techniques for facilitating process in adolescent psychotherapy groups

The application of various types of techniques for structuring the interchange and feedback process in adolescent psychotherapy groups is described. Techniques include random assignment of "roles" for each member during sessions, "parent hot seat" exercises, group goal booklets, and negotiation exercises. These have proved helpful in ensuring effective group participation, providing practice in social skills and verbalization of feelings, and in the development of other specific mastery skills.     

The effects of extinction,noncontingent reinforcement and differential reinforcement of other behavior as control procedures

Several techniques have been used in applied research as controls for the introduction of a reinforcement contingency, including extinction, noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), and differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO). Little research, however, has examined the relative strengths and limitations of these "reversal" controls. We compared the effects of extinction with those of NCR and DRO in both multi-element and reversal designs, with respect to (a) rate and amount of response decrement, (b) rate of response recovery following reintroduction of reinforcement, and (c) any positive or negative side effects associated with transitions. Results indicated that extinction generally produced the most consistent and rapid reversal effects, with few observed negative side effects.     

Recognition and context memory for faces from own and other ethnic groups: A remember-know investigation

People are more accurate at recognizing faces from their own ethnic group than at recognizing faces from other ethnic groups. This other-ethnicity effect (OEE) in recognition may be produced by a deficit in recollective memory for other-ethnicity faces. In a single study, White and Black participants saw White and Black faces presented within several different visual contexts. The participants were then given an old/new recognition task. Old responses were followed by remember-know-guess judgments and context judgments. Own-ethnicity faces were recognized more accurately, were given more remember responses, and produced more accurate context judgments than did other-ethnicity faces. These results are discussed in a dual-process framework, and implications for eyewitness memory are considered.     

Visual attention to members of own and other groups: Preferences,determinants, and consequences

Many current and past theories of social categorization acknowledge and even underline the critical role that visual processing plays in intergroup misperceptions and biases, yet research that directly measures or manipulates these processes is limited. In the present paper, we reviewed the current literature on visual attention to own and other group faces. First, we explored the development of preferential attention in face processing. Next, we examined these processes in adults and show different patterns of attention for own and other group faces. Although we briefly consider cross‐cultural variations, the focus of this review is on within‐culture differences in visual attention. In particular, we explore preferential attention to specific features on own versus other group faces and to their overall faces. We also discuss potential determinants for differential attention such as experience, threat, individuation and a desire to know in‐groups, and liking. Finally, we explore the implications of differential attention to own and other groups. These consequences range from reduced recognition of other group faces, to impaired identification of emotional expressions, to impeded interaction intentions, and to increased discrimination. Together our analyses provide strong evidence for differences in attention to the faces and eyes of own versus other group members and their role in intergroup biases.     

Client perception of therapeutic factors in group psychotherapy and growth groups: an empirically-based hierarchical model

To assess group participants' perceptions of therapeutic factors, we developed an extensive questionnaire of 155 items that was administered to 489 members of 78 psychotherapy and growth groups of client-centered/experiential, psychoanalytic, behavioral, Gestalt and drama- and bodily oriented orientations. Using multivariate analyses we found a model that reveals the structure and connections of therapeutic factors as they are differentiated in the experience of the group members. Our model encompasses three hierarchical levels of abstraction: 28 Basic scales that appeared to be structured into seven main scales (Group Cohesion, Interactional Confirmation, Cathartic Self-Revelation, Self-Insight and Progress, Observational Experiences, Getting Directives, and Interactional Confrontation) and two dimensions (Relational Climate and Psychological Work). Validity for these therapeutic factors was found in their grounded content, statistically analyzed constructs, importance ratings, and correlations to intermediate outcome measures.