The development of social networks from early to middle childhood: Gender differences and the relation to school competence

The purpose of this study was to examine gender differences in social network development from early to middle childhood and the relation of network characteristics to school competence. Maternal report of 75 children's kin, nonkin adult, and friendship networks were collected at 3, 6, and 9 years of age. Teacher ratings of school competence were obtained at 9 years. While children showed changes in their social networks over time, expected gender differences were not found in the extensive nature of the nonkin network. However, as expected, preference for same-sex friends was noted in early childhood and intensified with age into middle childhood. For girls, but not for boys, social network characteristics were related to teacher ratings of social competence in school.The preparation of this paper was made possible by the support of the William T. Grant Foundation.     

Ethnicity and gender in late childhood and early adolescence: group identity and awareness of bias

The current study examined awareness of gender and ethnic bias and gender and ethnic identity in 350 African American, White/European American, and Latino/Hispanic students (Mage = 11.21 years, SD = 1.59) from the 4th, 6th, and 8th grades of diverse middle and elementary schools. The study collected (a) qualitative data to best capture the types of bias that were most salient to children and (b) daily diaries and individual measures to examine the multiple components of children's gender and ethnic identities. Results revealed ethnic, gender, and grade-level differences in awareness of ethnic and gender bias. Overall, more children were aware of gender bias than ethnic bias. This effect was most pronounced among White/European American youths. Among those in 4th grade, African American and Latino youths were more likely to be aware of ethnic bias than were White/European American youths. Analyses also examined how awareness of bias was related to gender and ethnic identity. For example, children who had a salient and important gender identity, and a devalued ethnic identity, were less likely than other children to be aware of ethnic bias.     

性别刻板印象及刻板信息对3～9岁儿童玩具选择的影响

采用玩具选择任务,通过对角色性别刻板玩具偏好的描述,考察3-9岁儿童对自己和他人性别刻板印象的发展状况,及外部信息对儿童选择的影响。结果表明：（1）儿童在玩具选择中表现出的性剐刻板印象在4．5岁显著增强,在7～9岁趋于稳定;（2）男孩性别刻板印象的形成先于女孩;（3）学龄前期儿童对不舍性别刻板信息的女性角色最不刻板,性别刻板信息会显著增加女孩对异性角色的刺板程度,而男孩则对自身的玩具选择最为刺板：（4）5-6岁时,儿童对自身玩具选择的性别刻板要求显著增强。总的来说,儿童的性别刻板印象受到内部认知发展和社会环境的共同作用。     

Disentangling recoding processes and evaluative associations in a gender attitude implicit association test among adult males

The course of male development of implicit gender attitudes between young age (N?=?30, age 17–26 years) and old age (N?=?34, age 56–78 years) was investigated. The findings demonstrated that younger males had a stronger implicit preference for females relative to males than did older participants, shedding light on the nature of age differences in gender attitudes in regard to implicit measures. Although younger and older participants demonstrated different levels of gender bias on an implicit association test (IAT), the application of the ReAL model [Meissner, F., &; Rothermund, K. (2013). Estimating the contributions of associations and recoding in the implicit association test: The ReAL model for the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(1), 45–69.] showed that evaluative associations of both female and male were activated at equivalent levels among both the young and old age groups, but younger males were more able to recode the female gender and a positive evaluation into common categories. Thus, the differences in attitudinal responses between younger and older males exaggerated the differences in the underlying evaluative associations with respect to gender and concealed the differences in recoding processes. These findings have important implications for the measurement and interpretation of implicit gender attitudes.     

幼儿二级错误信念认知、亲社会行为与同伴接纳的关系

探讨了113名3~6岁儿童的二级错误信念认知、亲社会行为与同伴接纳之间的关系,结果表明：在总体上,儿童的亲社会行为是其同伴接纳的最佳预测变量;二级错误信念认知和亲社会行为对儿童同伴接纳的影响存在一定的年龄效应,二级错误信念认知是年幼组儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量,而亲社会行为则是年长组儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量。     

Time Use, Time Pressure and Gendered Behavior in Early and Late Adolescence

Using a stratified sample of Canadian adolescents residing in Ontario (n = 2,154) time use patterns and perceptions of time pressure are explored to determine gender differences among younger (12–14 years) and older adolescents (15–19 years). For both age groups, girls report a higher total workload of schoolwork, domestic activities and paid employment and spend more time on personal care while boys have more free time, especially during early adolescence. Feelings of time pressure for teens increase with age and are significantly higher for girls in both age categories. Gender differences are less pronounced on school days when time is fairly structured, but become more consistent with traditional gender schema on the weekend when time use is more discretionary.     

Children's perceptions of dangerous substances

The aim of this research was to examine age differences in children's perceptions of dangerous substances. Children's responses to photographs of child models encountering alcohol, a syringe, medicine, glue, and household bleach were coded for recognition of substance, awareness of potential danger, and understanding of danger or harm. Responses from 59 children (28 girls and 31 boys, who were all children of the required age in an urban primary school) were compared across three age groups (6-7 years, 8-9 years, and 10-11 years). 15 to 18 of 20 children in each of three age groups recognised all the dangerous substances. Significant differences across age groups were found for awareness of the potential harm from alcohol, glue, and medicine, but not for the syringe or bleach. Children reported less serious consequences from ingesting alcohol than other substances, the consequences of sniffing glue tended to be confused with the sticking properties of glue, children's understanding of transmission of germs, disease, and AIDS through syringes was varied, and there was a tendency among the older children to underestimate the potential harm of self-administration of medicines. Findings were discussed in relation to children's concepts of danger and safety education.     

The effect of cues on young children's abilities to discriminate among thoughts, feelings and behaviours

OBJECTIVE: To determine if cues help young children discriminate among thoughts, feelings and behaviours. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-six children aged 4-7 years from three schools in Norwich, UK. DESIGN: Within each age band (4, 5, 6, 7), children were randomised to the cue or the no cue condition on a stratified basis ensuring that equal numbers of boys and girls from each school were in each of the eight cells (cue condition x age). Cues were glove puppets and post boxes. The effect of IQ was controlled. MEASURES: A discrimination task, in which children were asked to identify a thought, a feeling and a behaviour from each of six brief stories, and a brief IQ assessment were administered to children individually. RESULTS: There was a significant effect of age and cue condition on performance; older children and those who were presented with the cue performed better. There were no gender differences and no interaction between cue condition and age. CONCLUSION: Many young children discriminated among thoughts, feelings and behaviours suggesting that they may be able to engage in this aspect of cognitive behaviour therapy. Simple cues (puppets and posting boxes) improved children's performance and these may be useful therapeutic tools with young children.     

Gender Differences in Preschoolers' and Kindergartners' Artistic Production and Preference

There are striking differences between boys' andgirls' art during the elementary school years, but it isunknown whether such artistic gender differences emergeearlier in childhood. We tested 20 preschoolers (12 boys, 8 girls) and 29 kindergartners (15boys, 14 girls), most White and middle-class, on threetasks to assess gender-stereotypicality in theirdrawings and preferences for pictures. As predicted, in a production task, boys and girls drewgender stereotypical pictures, though neither group wasextremely stereotypical. Interestingly, evenpre-representational preschoolers' scribbles were ratedas gender-stereotypical, despite the absence ofidentifiable thematic content. In a second task,children chose coloring-book sheets, previously ratedfor gender-stereotypicality, which they expected tocolor. Boys chose masculine and girls chose femininesheets. In a third task, boys and girls preferredgender-stereotypical pictures and were similar in howstrongly stereotypic their choices were. The tasksdemonstrate that gender differences in artistic productionand preference emerge in the preschool years, earlierthan previously reported. Beneficial future work wouldaddress relations between children's artistic production and preference and their genderschema flexibility and socializationexperiences.     

Development of the concept of family in elementary school children

Two studies were conducted to examine the relation of age, gender, and family structure to children's understanding of the concept of family. In Study 1,387 children in Grades 1 through 6 were asked to classify various groupings of individuals as constituting or not constituting a family. Results showed both age and gender differences in children's conceptions of families: Younger children, especially boys, generally used concrete, absolute criteria for defining a family; younger girls were similar to older children in that they were more likely to employ abstract, relational criteria for family definition. Results also showed that children's own family structure was not related to their family definitions. In Study 2, 64 children from the original sample were given a measure of cognitive ability to examine whether differences in cognitive development or differences in socialization were a likely source of younger girls' more advanced understanding. Gender differences in cognitive ability did not emerge, suggesting that the gender effects in Study 1 reflected differences in the socialization of boys and girls. Implications of the findings for understanding children's reactions to family disruption are discussed.     

Links between sex-typed time use in middle childhood and gender development in early adolescence

The authors studied sex-typing in the kinds (e.g., sports, handicrafts) and social contexts (same- vs. other-sex companions) of children's free time activities, and the links between sex-typed activities and gender development over 2 years. Participants were 200 White, working- and middle-class children (103 girls, 97 boys; mean age = 10.86 years). In annual home interviews, children rated their self-esteem, gender role attitudes and sex-typed personality qualities, academic interests, and school grades. During 7 nightly phone interviews each year, children reported on their activities. Boys were more sex-typed than girls in their peer activities, and children were least sex-typed in their activities with siblings. Sex-typed activities in middle childhood predicted individual differences in gender development in early adolescence.     

幼儿同伴关系发展的稳定性

研究采用同伴提名法,从2004年到2008年对三个自然班幼儿(71名)群体水平的同伴关系分别在三个时间点开始从小班到大班的追踪,考察学前期幼儿同伴关系连续变量的稳定性,结果发现:(1)幼儿同伴接纳、同伴拒绝、社会偏好和社会影响的稳定性受年龄和时间间隔的影响,在中班与大班之间均存在中等相关,而社会偏好和同伴接纳在小班与中班也存在中等相关,社会偏好在小班与大班也存在中等相关;(2)幼儿社会偏好发展模式经聚类分析为4组:一般偏好稳定组、高偏好稳定组、一般到高偏好变化组和低偏好变化组,64.79%的幼儿社会偏好发展保持稳定;(3)幼儿从小班起,女孩比男孩一直更少受到同伴拒绝,更多受到同伴偏爱。总体而言,学前期幼儿同伴关系发展具有中等稳定性,中班是稳定性发展的重要时期。     

Age‐related variations and sex differences in gender cleavage during middle childhood

Gender cleavage, the segregation of the sexes, is a powerful phenomenon affecting socialization during childhood, but its developmental trajectory is far from clear. Sociometric responses by 299 boys and girls in Grades 3 to 6 from a group preference record were used to investigate age‐related variations and sex differences in gender cleavage. Moreno's (1953) developmental model of gender cleavage was examined in the light of sociocultural changes, as well as advances in the theory and measurement of gender cleavage. Sex differences were found in same‐gender preference, with older elementary girls showing greater same‐gender preference than boys of the same age. However, this finding, plus the absence of gender differences in cross‐gender evaluations, did not support more recent developmental accounts of gender cleavage. Linear trend analyses contradicted Moreno's basic precept of increasing same‐gender preference between Grades 3 and 6. While same‐gender acceptance and rejection were relatively similar regardless of grade level, cross‐gender acceptance was greater in higher than in lower grades and the reverse was true for rejection. Furthermore, weaker gender cleavage effects in rejection data than in acceptance data suggested that strong same‐gender liking does not infer equally robust cross‐gender dislike. Gender cleavage appears to be relative rather than absolute. A more complex model is proposed incorporating sex differences as well as rejection evaluations     

儿童社会观点采择的发展及其与同伴互动关系的研究

采用经过标准化处理的观点采择故事对幼儿园大班和小学二、四、六年级儿童的社会观点采择能力进行测量,利用录像观察技术和同伴评定法分别测定幼儿园大班和小学儿童的同伴社会互动经验,考察儿童社会观点采择的发展及其与同伴互动经验之间的关系。研究发现：（１）幼儿园大班儿童在准确采择他人观点方面还存在较大困难,６－１０岁为儿童社会观点采择能力快速发展的时期,１０岁左右的小学儿童能够根据有关事件信息准确推断他人的观     

Inner-City Children Living with an HIV-Seropositive Mother: Parent–Child Relationships, Perception of Social Support, and Psychological Disturbance

Despite ongoing concern about the well-being of HIV-seronegative children living in urban poverty with a seropositive mother, very little is known about this expanding population of children. In this cross-sectional study, the psychosocial adjustment of 60 ethnic minority children 11 to 16 years of age who were living with an HIV-seropositive mother was compared with that of 108 children attending public school in the same community. Results of three multivariate analyses of covariance indicated that, after allowance for differences associated with age, gender, ethnicity, and family structure, the HIV-affected group confirmed (a) greater disturbance in the parent–child relationship, (b) less social support, and (c) greater disturbance in psychological functioning. Secondary analysis of the multivariate findings indicated that the differences were characterized primarily by (a) perception of more indifference and hostility in the mother–child relationship, (b) perception of less social support available from parents, friends, and teachers, and (c) less self-esteem. The findings suggest that HIV infection and concurrent problems may compromise parent–child relationships and perception of social support in ways that leave older, seronegative children living with an infected mother at risk for psychological disturbance.     

Academic performance differences among ethnic groups: do the daily use and management of time offer explanations?

This explorative study describes time use and time management behaviour of ethnic minority and ethnic majority students as possible explanations for the poorer study results of ethnic minority students compared to those of majority students. We used a diary approach in a small sample to examine students’ daily time use in both a lecture week and an exam week. Time management behaviour was measured in a questionnaire, as were demographic variables. The sample consisted of 48 full-time first-year university students of Business Administration of which 24 students belonged to a non-Western ethnic minority group. Student pairs (ethnic majority vs. non-Western ethnic minority) were fully matched by gender, socio-economic status, living situation and type of secondary education. Results showed that ethnic majority students earned higher grades compared to ethnic minority students. As regards time management behaviour, ethnic majority students appeared to have a stronger preference for organisation (e.g., leaving a clear study space at the end of a study day) than ethnic minority students. No differences between ethnic groups were revealed in setting goals and priorities (e.g., setting deadlines) and mechanics of time management (e.g., making to-do lists). Daily time use also appeared to be the same for both ethnic groups.     

I am really good at puzzles, but I don't get asked to play with others: age, gender, and ethnic differences in Head Start children's self-perceptions of competence

The author examined age, gender, and ethnic differences in the self-perceptions of 112 low-income children who were assessed with the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance (PSPCSA) at Head Start and kindergarten. Children's self-ratings of competence were overly optimistic across the 4 subscales of the PSPCSA during the 2 years of the investigation. Contrary to the author's expectations, children's self-evaluations were significantly higher at the end of kindergarten across all subscales of the PSPCSA. Ethnic group differences also were found. African American children described their cognitive competence less favorably than did Caucasian children.     

Gender Differences and Cognition Among Older Adults

The more replicated findings about gender difference in cognitive performance suggest female superiority on visuomotor speed and language ability and male superiority on mechanical and visuospatial tasks. Generally, group strengths found in the early school years become more established at adolescence and remain stable through adulthood. The current study tested whether the patterns established in the early years remained among 30 adult subjects. We also utilized a series of exploratory analyses to determine if observed gender differences were impacted by the covariance present between all cognitive tests. Results suggest that although the patterns established in the early years remain stable through time for males, the established patterns for females are altered with age. Our findings are compelling in supporting a male advantage on visuospatial tasks among older adults. These findings are discussed in terms of common variance between test instruments as a possible source of difference. Our finding that the gender effect tended to increase when common variance was controlled argues that this methodology may enhance the ability to detect domain specific effects.     

Children's sensitivity to circular explanations

The ability to evaluate the quality of explanations is an essential part of children's intellectual growth. Explanations can be faulty in structural ways such as when they are circular. A circular explanation reiterates the question as if it were an explanation rather than providing any new information. Two experiments (N=77) examined children's preferences when faced with circular and noncircular explanations. The results demonstrate that a preference for noncircular explanations is present, albeit in a fragile form, by 5 or 6 years of age and that it appears robustly by 10 years of age. Thus, the ability to evaluate the quality of explanations based on structural grounds appears to develop rapidly during the elementary school years.     

幼儿情绪理解、亲社会行为与同伴接纳之间的关系

以131名3~6岁的儿童为被试,探讨了不同层次情绪理解能力的发展及其与儿童的亲社会行为、同伴接纳之间的关系。结果表明,儿童的表情识别、情绪解码和二级情绪理解能力表现出了不同的发展趋势;在总体上,儿童的情绪解码能力和亲社会行为能显著地预测其同伴接纳;情绪理解和亲社会行为对儿童同伴接纳的影响存在一定的年龄效应,情绪解码能力是年幼儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量,亲社会行为则是年长儿童同伴接纳的最佳预测变量。