Credentialism Across Creeds: Clergy Education and Stratification in Protestant Denominations

In this paper, we explore how Protestant denominations use education to stratify their pastors among lower and higher income jobs and how this use of education intersects with gender. We assume that reliance on education as anindication of job qualification ultimately reflects accommodation to secular norms and hypothesize that it will be practiced most strongly in theologically liberal contexts. Next, we hypothesize that women will benefit from education more than men, a pattern that is typical of secular labor markets. And we predict that education will have a stronger effect on income in denominations where regional clergy administrators have influence in matching pastors to jobs. Data are taken from the 1994 "Ordained Women and Men Study"and consist of career information on clergy in fifteen denominations. Contrary to expectations, clergy degrees have a stronger effect on income in conservative than in liberal denominations. We further find that women clergy receive lower income returns to their degrees in denominations requiring a Master of Divinity for ordination but receive higher returns in the others. Finally, results show that seminary prestige is more beneficial in denominations where pastors are hired directly by congregations rather than placed in congregations by regional clergy administrators.     

Models of Clergy Spouse Involvement in Protestant Christian Congregations

While all adults in the paid labor force face the difficult task of managing the competing pressures of work and family life, clergy families encounter an added dynamic in the way spouses are integrated into the church. Yet spouses approach involvement in unique and varied ways, making intentional choices over how much or little to participate in the congregations their husbands and wives pastor. Drawing from in-depth interviews with 46 pastors and clergy spouses in five Protestant Christian denominations, this study describes three models of clergy spouse participation showing the diverse ways women and men interpret and enact their role through the ongoing management of boundaries. I consider several social factors informing the model a clergy spouse embraces—pressure from congregants or one’s own ideas, congregational precedent, gender and stage in the life cycle—shedding light on the interaction between individual preferences and contextual factors. In doing so, I argue that although the women and men in this study are continually recreating what it means to be a clergy spouse, they remain heavily rooted in a traditional expectation that pastors’ wives and husbands provide support to their spouse’s church and calling to pastoral ministry.     

Coping with breast cancer: The roles of clergy and faith

This paper describes the experiences of 103 breast cancer patients with home pastors and hospital chaplains. Attention was directed at the activities of clergy, the degree to which religious and nonreligious interactions were satisfying to the women, and how these related to their personal faith orientation. Because of the issues of sexual identity and attractiveness entailed by breast cancer, the role of female clergy was also explored. It is evident that religion is an extremely important resource for the majority of these breast cancer patients, and an intrinsic religious orientation helps one cope with breast cancer.     

Patterns of Stress and Support Among Adventist Clergy: Do Pastors and their Spouses Differ?

Studies of clergy stress have addressed the demands made by the ministry environment on the minister’s personal and family life. Most of the research has been conducted using the individual responses of male pastors. Comparatively little empirical research has been done with pastors’ wives, and still less where both the husbands’ and the wives’ responses are matched and compared. The present study utilizes Hill’s (Families under stress, Harper, New York, 1949) ABC-X model of family stress to examine differences between spouses in how demand, support, and perception relate to personal and ministry outcomes. Survey results from a sample of 147 male Seventh-Day Adventist clergy and their wives indicated that while there were some consistent differences in levels of demand and support, the most salient variable was their satisfaction with available social support, and this was true of both pastors and wives.     

Ministry and Stress: Listening to Anglican Clergy in Wales

This study set out to examine the experiences of stress in ministry among a sample of Anglican clergy serving in Wales. Building on recent quantitative studies of work-related psychological health among Anglican clergy in England, the study employed mainly qualitative methods to illustrate eight issues: the clergy’s overall assessment of their present health, their understanding of the characteristics of stress, their assessment of the levels of symptoms of stress within their own lives, their identification of the causes of stress within their experience of ministry, the people on whom they call for support in times of stress, their strategy for and styles of recreation, their assessment of the pastoral care provision available to clergy, and their views on enhancing initial clergy training to equip clergy to cope with stress. Data provided by 73 clergy (10 female and 63 male) portray a group of professionally engaged men and women who are well aware of the stress-related dynamics of their vocation, who are displaying classic signs of work-overload, and who are critical of and resistant to strategies that may confuse the pastoral care of stressed clergy with the accepted management role of the Church’s hierarchy of bishops and archdeacons.     

Exploring Power and Gender Issues Emergent in an Institutional Workshop on Preventing Clergy Sexual Misconduct

The Eastern Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) sponsors the Crossing the Boundaries (CTB) workshop, a program that focuses on the maintenance of appropriate boundaries in clergy-congregant relationships as a means to prevent clergy sexual misconduct. Drawing primarily on an analysis of the synod-sanctioned workshop materials, an observation of the workshop, and interviews with 10 pastors who have attended the workshop, this paper explores differing conceptions of power and gender held by the synod officials and workshop participants.     

The effect of women's suggestive clothing on men's behavior and judgment: a field study

Numerous studies have shown that men overestimate the sexual intent of women based on their clothing style; however, this hypothesis has not been assessed empirically in a natural setting. This small field study measured the time it took for men to approach two female confederates sitting in a tavern, one wearing suggestive clothes and one wearing more conservative clothes. The behavior of 108 men was observed over 54 periods on 16 different nights in two different taverns. The time it took for the men to approach after initial eye contact was significantly shorter in the suggestive clothing condition. The men were also asked by male confederates to rate the likelihood of having a date with the women, and having sex on the first date. The men rated their chances to have a date and to have sex significantly higher in the suggestive clothing condition. Results are discussed with respect to men's possible misinterpretation that women's clothing indicates sexual interest, and the risks associated with the misinterpretation.     

Heterosocial perceptual organization: application of the choice model to sexual coercion

Luce's (1959, 1963) choice model was used to characterize individual differences in men's perception of women's affect as friendly, sexually interested, sad, or rejecting. Women's clothing styles were associated with differences in the model's parameters. Sensitivity to sadness, rejection, and friendliness declined when women were dressed provocatively, whereas sensitivity to sexual interest increased. Provocative clothing was also associated with an increased bias to assume that positive affect was sexual interest rather than friendliness. Men at risk for perpetrating sexual aggression were less sensitive to women's affect than low-risk men were. They were also more likely than low-risk men to associate provocative clothing with sexual interest, and conservative clothing with friendliness. Results indicate that heterosocial perception may help to predict sexually coercive behavior and may be an important target for intervention.     

Gender differences in conflict resolution styles of managers: At work and at home

Because women and men managers occupy different roles at work and at home, role theory suggests that they would use different conflict resolution behaviors in each role. This study tested this theory empirically using the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode instrument to measure the five conflict resolution styles of 201 managers (99 males and 102 females) in both situational roles. Sex differences were examined along with hierarchical rank. Both genders tended to handle conflict more competitively at work than at home, and used the accommodating style more frequently at home than at work. At home, low-level women managers were more willing to collaborate and less willing to avoid conflict than at work; men managers overall were less likely to compromise at home than at work.     

Talking about Homosexuality: The Views of Mainline Protestant Clergy

Homosexuality is one of the most divisive issues within mainline Protestantism today. In this article we portray the many sides of mainline Protestantism's debates about homosexuality through the lens of statements clergy made about the issue in early 2000. In interviews with 62 mainline Protestant clergy across the United States, 40 volunteered their views on homosexuality without being prompted. We describe the frames through which clergy understand and articulate issues related to homosexuality in the midst of contentious denominational debate about the subject. The majority of clergy who discussed homosexuality focused on the issue in their churches instead of in society at large, and in their denominations rather than in their own congregations. Moreover, virtually none of the clergy interviewed took hard and fast stands on the issue of homosexuality. Most approach the issue in a pragmatic, rather than prophetic, way. Our interviews also show that pastors who choose to speak on homosexuality tend to frame the issue in terms of the diffuse notion of "homosexuality," rather than talking about gay men and lesbians as people.     

Accuracy and Bias in Stereotypes about the Social and Political Attitudes of Women and Men

In three experiments examining the accuracy of gender stereotypes about attitudes, male and female participants estimated the attitudes of men or women on items that had been administered in the General Social Survey to assess attitudes on social and political issues. Demonstrating moderate stereotypic accuracy were correlations between (a) participants' estimates of these attitudes and (b) the criterion attitudes of male and female survey respondents and sex differences in the criterion attitudes. Nevertheless, analyses of discrepancies between the estimated and criterion attitudes revealed a systematic bias by which participants consistently underestimated men's support for female-stereotypic positions on issues. Further analyses of these data suggested that this error rose from perceptions that men would oppose policies that favored women's interests. In contrast, perceived female group interest functioned as a cue to accuracy in estimating women's attitudes.     

Gender Differences in Coping Styles of Chinese Military Officers Undergoing Intensive Training

This study investigated gender differences in anxiety and coping styles under the stress of intense military training. We surveyed Chinese female (n = 470) and male (n = 379) military officers who were surveyed during the third month of a 10-month intensive training program. Results indicated that state and trait anxiety were highly correlated in both women and men. In general, female officers had higher levels of anxiety, greater negative coping tendencies, and less perceived self-efficacy than their male counterparts. When compared with the norm, both women and men had significantly more positive coping strategies. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed factors that influenced male and female state anxiety. Avoidance, which was chosen by women more often than men, in general was less useful for female officers. The most common positive coping style for female officers was problem solving, whereas for men it was help seeking. We suggested that even female officers with lower mental health levels than their male counterparts made active cognitive changes to their coping styles when undergoing intense military training.     

Should men treat women? Dilemmas for the male psychotherapist: psychoanalytic and developmental perspectives

A spate of sexual abuse cases predominantly involving male psychotherapists with female patients as their victims raises serious questions about the ethics of cross-gender therapeutic dyads. Although such abusive situations must be highlighted as ethically aberrant, they may well represent a type of intrusive harm or hostile neglect which ensues on a continuum in the psychotherapeutic treatment of many female patients by male clinicians. I argue that the difficulties for men in empathically understanding women stem not only from certain misconceptions about women's development but especially stem from a paucity of understanding concerning men's psychology, a dearth of gender-sensitive information about the differences between boy's and girl's/men's and women's development, and a consequent difficulty for male psychotherapists to engage in the type of productive self-analysis that would ameliorate this gender-biased myopia. Recent psychoanalytically oriented child development/family research and innovative revisions of psychoanalytic theory are used to highlight some of the often overlooked, yet salient aspects of men's development as it is differentiated from women's. Specifically addressed is the possibility of a male, gender-linked vulnerability for a normative traumatic abrogation of the early holding environment with predictable sequelae in later intimate relationships, including the psychotherapeutic encounter. As the "confusion of tongues" between men's and women's development comes to light, is translated, and is empathically understood, new hope may be found for male therapists and their patients. An opportunity for enhanced therapeutic efficacy within an ethical and genuinely caring depth psychology may then be generated.     

Clergy Dual Relationships,Boundaries, and Attachment

Male and female clergy, primarily rabbis, scored similarly on a measure of attachment related anxiety and avoidance although men scored as significantly more compartmentalized than women on a boundary measure. Rabbis scored as significantly less comfortable depending on others and opening up to others than Gentile clergy. Finally, this study delineates four clergy approaches to dual relationships and the tendency of clergy boundaries to thicken with experience in the field.     

Do women perform fellatio as a mate retention behavior?

Men who report performing more mate retention behaviors, in general, and more benefit-provisioning mate retention behaviors, in particular, also report greater interest in, and spend more time, performing oral sex on their female partner. We extended these findings to a female sample to investigate whether women’s oral sex behaviors are related to their mate retention behaviors. We secured self-report data from 410 women residing in the United States or in Germany in a committed, sexual, heterosexual relationship. The results indicate that women who report performing more benefit-provisioning mate retention behaviors also report greater interest in, and spend more time, performing oral sex on their partner. Further, there are no sex differences in the magnitudes or directions of these relationships. The results suggest that both men and women are more interested in, and spend more time, performing oral sex on their partner as part of a benefit-provisioning strategy to increase their partner’s relationship satisfaction. We address limitations of this research, and discuss explanations for the results.     

Baptist senior pastors’ knowledge and perceptions of mental illness

Senior pastors at churches affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas (BGCT) were anonymously surveyed using an online questionnaire to ascertain their knowledge and perceptions of the causes and potential treatments of mental illness. BGCT senior pastors reported a moderate level of contact with the mentally ill and populations known to have higher than average rates of mental illness (e.g., homeless). They also reported that the individuals with whom they counsel are rarely diagnosed with mental illness. While Baptist senior pastors embraced biological causes and treatments for mental illness as most important and effective, they varied greatly across disorders as to the perceived contribution of psychosocial and spiritual factors. Senior pastors in the present study reported being open to referring their congregants to mental health care professionals with whom they shared common values. Overall, the results of the study point to a need for greater mental health education for Baptist clergy as well as opportunities for the development of increased collaboration between the mental health and faith communities.     

Beyond intimacy: conceptualizing sex differences in same-sex friendships

This study was designed to replicate and extend prior findings that same-sex friendships of women and men are equally important but that women's friendships are more intimate. A group of adolescents and a group of adults were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire regarding the quality of their close friendships, the degree to which they would support a close friend in times of difficulty, and the degree to which they would celebrate with a friend in times of success. Results demonstrated that both females and males saw and spoke with their close friends and were equally willing to confront and trust their close friends. Females, however, reported more desire to spend time with a close friend in times of difficulty and to celebrate with a close friend who had just experienced a positive event. Results are discussed in terms of the differing functions of women's and men's same-sex friendships and women's greater general interest in and attention to transitions in the lives of other individuals.     

The Politics of the Willow Creek Association Pastors

The Willow Creek Association (WCA), a loose association of some 8,000 churches with a common interest in evangelizing using the "seeker" model pioneered by the Willow Creek Community Church, is a good example of a postmodern religious association. A survey of clergy whose churches belong to WCA reveals the membership of the WCA to be diverse, with a large membership from mainline and evangelical denominations. However, the clergy are orthodox in theology, conservative in social theology and on political issues, and generally Republican in partisanship. These pastors are also very active in politics and their churches are deeply involved in the provision of social services. Differences among WCA pastors, especially between the mainline and evangelical Protestants, suggest that the WCA will not evolve into a denomination in the near future. However, the communalities among these clergy reveal the potential of postmodern associations to serve as a forum for cross-denominational coalition building on key issues.     

Women's reactions to discrimination from members of the same or opposite sex

The effects upon women's self-evaluations of experiencing varying severity of failure in interpersonal competition against male vs. female opponents were explored. The results supported the hypothesis that self-esteem in women is more vulnerable to interpersonal rejection from men as opposed to other women. Specifically, subjects reported lower self-esteem when severe failure was due to the actions of alleged, male opponents rather than female ones. Also, severe failure elicited less favorable self-evaluations than mild failure only when the female subjects confronted male opponents. Finally, contrary to a defensive self-presentation hypothesis, subjects did not respond to discrimination from men by presenting themselves as being discrepant from the stereotype of women. Instead, subjects who interpreted their failure as reflecting prejudice on the part of men evaluated themselves more favorably on positive traits underlying the female stereotype.