The mediational role of executive functions for the relationship between motor ability and academic performance in pediatric cancer survivors

IntroductionPediatric Cancer Survivors (PCS) bear a high risk for late effects within motor abilities (MAs) and executive functions (EFs). In typically developing children, these domains are interrelated and predictors of academic performance. The current study investigated (i) whether MAs and EFs are also interrelated in PCS, and (ii) whether EFs mediate the relation between MAs and academic performance.Methods78 PCS (7–16 years; M = 11.23; SD = 2.49) participated in this study. Three MAs were assessed: coordination and strength (using the German Motor Test) and endurance (using a cycle ergometer test). EFs were assessed: inhibition and cognitive flexibility (Color-Word Interference Test) and working memory (Block Recall test); and academic performance by questionnaire asking for children’s grade point average.ResultsPearson correlations revealed associations of coordination and strength with EFs and associations of all three MAs with academic performance. A multiple regression model revealed that among the three MAs, coordination was the only significant predictor of EFs (β = 0.42, p = .001). Lastly, mediation analyses revealed that the association of MAs with academic performance was mediated by EFs (indirect effect: β = 0.167, p = .003). Regarding individual motor abilities, this was only true for coordination and strength, but not for endurance.ConclusionResults show that MAs and EFs are interrelated in PCS and that EFs mediate the relationship between coordination and strength with academic performance. This may be important for the design of future physical activity interventions to improve MAs, EFs and academic performance.     

Effects of three training types on vitality among older adults: A self-determination theory perspective

ObjectivesTo investigate effects of endurance, functional and strength training on subjective vitality in older adults. Using the self-determination theory (SDT) framework we tested the moderating effects of autonomy support and mediating effects of need satisfaction on participants’ changes in vitality.DesignParallel-groups randomized controlled trial.Methods138 older adults (M = 74.2 years, SD = 4.5) were randomized to a training group or wait-list control, with assessments at baseline, at 7 weeks (short term), and 16 weeks (long term). Mixed models provided estimates of treatment effects, with covariates for moderating effects of autonomy support and mediating effects of need satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness). Inferences were based on uncertainty in standardized effect-sizes (ES) in relation to a smallest important ES of 0.20.ResultsAt short term, effects on vitality were moderate for endurance training (ES = .70, ±.44), and small for functional (ES = .54, ±.36) and strength training (ES = .21, ±.47). At long term only endurance training had a clear effect on vitality (ES = .27, ±.38). Perceived autonomy support moderated the effect of endurance training at short term (ES = .66, ±.66), and functional training at long term (ES = .23, ±.40). Change in competence mediated the effect of functional and strength training at long term, while in endurance training high perceptions of autonomy support moderated the mediation effect of competence on vitality.ConclusionsEndurance training is recommended for increasing subjective vitality in older adults. Moderating effects of autonomy support and mediating effects of need satisfaction are partially consistent with self-determination theory.     

Motivation beliefs,emotions, leisure time physical activity,and sedentary behavior in university students: A full longitudinal model of mediation

Discrete emotions produce predictable response tendencies, yet there is limited understanding about their potential to mediate relations between motivation beliefs and leisure time physical activity (LTPA) and sedentary behavior. The current study investigates self-reported moderate LTPA, vigorous LTPA, and sedentary behavior as measured by the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire using control – value theory of achievement emotions (CVTAE) with a full longitudinal mediation design. A total of 586 young adults (Mage = 19.44, SD = 1.43) completed 1485 time-specific reports of LTPA, sedentary behavior, PA enjoyment, LTPA boredom, and control and value beliefs toward PA across three waves of data collection. Structural equation modeling was used to systematically disentangle direct and indirect relations over time. Neither enjoyment nor boredom mediated relations between participants’ control and value beliefs and moderate LTPA, vigorous LTPA, or sedentary behavior; however, boredom did negatively predict vigorous LTPA. There were reciprocal relations between control beliefs and moderate LTPA as well as value beliefs and PA enjoyment. The final model did not support relationships posited by CVTAE for LTPA or sedentary behavior. However, theoretically grounded CVTAE constructs explained substantive amounts of variance in moderate and vigorous LTPA but not sedentary behavior.     

Quadrupedal movement training improves markers of cognition and joint repositioning

IntroductionExercise, and in particular balance and coordination related activities such as dance, appear to have positive effects on cognitive function, as well as neurodegenerative conditions such as dementia and Parkinson’s disease. Quadrupedal gait training is a movement system requiring coordination of all four limbs that has previously been associated with cognitive development in children. There is currently little research into the effect of complex QDP movements on cognitive function in adults.PurposeTo determine the effects of a novel four-week quadrupedal gait training programme on markers of cognitive function and joint reposition sense in healthy adults.MethodsTwenty-two physically active sports science students (15 male and 7 female) were divided into two groups: a training group (TG) and a control group (CG). All participants completed the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) and were tested for joint reposition sense before and after a four-week intervention, during which time the TG completed a series of progressive and challenging quadrupedal movement training sessions.ResultsParticipants in the TG showed significant improvements in the WCST, with improvements in perseverative errors, non-perseverative errors, and conceptual level response. This improvement was not found in the CG. Joint reposition sense also improved for the TG, but only at 20 degrees of shoulder flexion.ConclusionsPerformance of a novel, progressive, and challenging task, requiring the coordination of all 4 limbs, has a beneficial impact on cognitive flexibility, and in joint reposition sense, although only at the specific joint angle directly targeted by the training. The findings are consistent with other studies showing improvements in executive function and joint reposition sense following physical activity.     

Effects of game‐based and standard executive control training on cognitive and academic abilities in elementary school children

Several studies indicate that executive functions (EF), such as working memory (WM), inhibition or flexibility can be improved by training and that these training‐related benefits in WM capacity generalize to reading and mathematical abilities. However, the results of these studies are inconsistent and most of them focused on WM training in children with learning difficulties. Evidence for typically developing children is rare and no study has investigated inhibition training or flexibility training. There is also a lack of studies taking motivational factors into account. Therefore, this study compared the effects of game‐based and standard training regimens targeting WM, inhibition, or flexibility in children. One hundred and fifty‐three typically developing elementary school students (mean age = 9.6 years, standard deviations  = 0.8) were investigated in an intervention design with a pretest, 21 sessions of training, a posttest and a follow‐up after three months. They were randomized into one of six training groups or a control group. We found training gains in all training groups and higher self‐reported motivation in the game‐based as compared to the standard training groups. Furthermore, there was domain‐specific transfer to untrained EF tasks across all training groups. We found greater performance improvements in reading ability (but not mathematics) in the game‐based flexibility training group and the game‐based inhibition training group as compared to the control group. Transfer effects were still significant at follow‐up. In sum, our findings provide first evidence for a systematic comparison of training on different domains of EF and their differential effects on academic abilities.     

Exercise training and health-related quality of life in generalized anxiety disorder

ObjectiveTo quantify the effects of six-weeks of resistance (RET) and aerobic exercise training (AET) on quality of life (QoL) among sedentary women with Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).DesignData from our published randomized controlled trial of the effects of six-weeks of either RET or AET among GAD patients were analyzed.MethodThirty women with GAD were randomized to either six weeks of twice-weekly lower-body weightlifting or cycling, or wait-list control (WL). SF-36 subscales assessed dimensions of QoL. Hedges’ d effect sizes (95%CIs) quantified the magnitude of change in response to exercise training compared to WL.ResultsRET significantly improved role-physical (d = 1.04; 95%CI: [0.11–1.97]), role-emotional (d = 0.96; [0.04–1.89]), and mental health (d = 1.05; [0.11–1.98]). AET resulted in significant improvements in physical function (d = 1.31; [0.34–2.27]) and vitality (d = 0.93; [0.01–1.85]).ConclusionsExercise training improves dimensions of QoL among GAD patients. The largest effects were observed for role impairments, physical function, vitality, and mental health.     

Perceived parental pressure and perceived coach pressure in adolescent and adult sport

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to investigate whether adolescent and adult athletes’ perceptions of interpersonal perfectionistic performance pressures from parents and coaches differ as a function of athlete age.DesignA cross-sectional repeated-measures design was employed.MethodA total of 1544 youth sport athletes (M age = 15.44 years; SD = 2.12) and 1706 adult sport athletes (M age = 20.80 years; SD = 2.09) provided self-report levels of perceived parental pressure (PPP) and perceived coach pressure (PCP) in sport.ResultsStatistically significant interaction effects (ps < .001) were obtained from two repeated-measures analyses of variance. Interaction effects indicated that PPP tended to be lower in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes, whereas PCP tended to be higher in older/adult sport athletes than younger/adolescent sport athletes. Significant main effects (ps < .001) also revealed that, regardless of age and whether athletes competed in youth sport or adult sport, athletes had a tendency to perceive more pressure from coaches than parents.ConclusionResults highlight the need to differentiate between parents and coaches as potential sources of interpersonal perfectionistic pressures in sport. Results also demonstrate that athletes’ perceptions of parent and coach pressure surrounding performance expectations and standards in sport can differ as a function of athlete age. Future research that examines perfectionism in sport from a developmental perspective is recommended.     

Effects of visualized PETTLEP imagery on the basketball 3-point shot: A comparison of internal and external perspectives

By adopting Holmes and Collins’(2001) PETTLEP imagery approach, we used participants’ individual videos of successful basketball shooting to examine the effects of internal and external imagery on basketball players’ 3-point shot. We sampled 49 intermediate level college basketball players (males = 26, Mage = 21; females = 23, Mage = 20) and assigned them into internal imagery (n = 15), external imagery (n = 14) and control groups (n = 20). Using a quasi-experimental design, experimental groups participated in an 8-week visualized PETTLEP imagery training plus physical training, but the control group only participated in physical training. The two-way ANOVA mixed design statistical analyses found the two visualized PETTLEP groups not only performed better than pretest, but also performed better than the control group after training. However, there was no difference between internal imagery and external imagery on basketball 3-point shot performance. We concluded that the characteristics of the motor task and participants’ skill level may influence the efficacy of the imagery perspective on performance. Theoretical implications, limitations, future research directions, and applications are discussed.     

Cognitive flexibility and response inhibition in patients with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Background/ObjectiveThe main aim of this study was to analyze differences in inhibition and cognitive flexibility, taking into account some variables that may influence results (non verbal reasoning, depression, anxiety, intolerance of uncertainty, comorbidity, medication consumption).MethodThe participants were 95 adults aged 17-61 years old (M = 33.48, SD = 11.13), primary (most severe) Generalized Anxiety Disorder or Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and a healthy control group. Neuropsychological neasures were completed using computerized Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Color Word Test and Go/NoGo Task.ResultsClinical groups presented worse results in cognitive flexibility to the control group. The obsessive-compulsive group showed worse scores in flexibility than the generalized anxiety group, once non-verbal reasoning and tolerance to uncertainty were controlled. Comorbidity and medication use did not affect results in the obsessive compulsive group but did however influence the generalized anxiety group.ConclusionsCognitive flexibility could be included treatment in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder.     

Investigating the acute effect of an aerobic dance exercise program on neuro-cognitive function in the elderly

ObjectiveThe present study investigated the types of aerobic dance programs that positively impact cognition, such as executive function, in elderly people.DesignRandomized controlled trial.MethodThe study compared the effects of acute aerobic dance exercise on cognitive performance using two 40-min aerobic dance programs. Thirty-four elderly participants, aged 65–75 years, were randomly assigned into either free (N = 17) or combination (N = 17) style workout groups. The free style (FR) workout consisted of several patterns of movement, while the combination style (CB) workout consisted of similar patterns of movement to FR, but the patterns were joined to form a long choreographic routine. Both dance programs were controlled to be the same in exercise intensity, approximately 40% heart rate reserve. Reaction time and correct rates were measured using a task-switching reaction time test to evaluate executive cognitive performance immediately before and after the 40-min dance exercise.ResultsA two-way (dance program × pre-post dance exercise) repeated-measures analysis of variance for switch reaction time increase (switch cost) demonstrated a significant interaction (p = .006), showing that the switch cost in the CB group became smaller after the dance exercise than before (p = .009).ConclusionThe results suggest that the executive cognitive network was facilitated in a CB dance workout that has a dual-task nature and induces movement (task) interference with unexpected movement changes.     

Executive Function in Very Preterm Children at Early School Age

We examined whether very preterm (≤30 weeks gestation) children at early school age have impairments in executive function (EF) independent of IQ and processing speed, and whether demographic and neonatal risk factors were associated with EF impairments. A consecutive sample of 50 children (27 boys and 23 girls) born very preterm (mean age = 5.9 years, SD = 0.4, mean gestational age = 28.0 weeks, SD = 1.4) was compared to a sample of 50 age-matched full-term controls (23 girls and 27 boys, mean age = 6.0 years, SD = 0.6) with respect to performance on a comprehensive EF battery, assessing the domains of inhibition, working memory, switching, verbal fluency, and concept generation. The very preterm group demonstrated poor performance compared to the controls on all EF domains, even after partialing out the effects of IQ. Processing speed was marginally related to EF. Analyses with demographic and neonatal risk factors showed maternal education and gestational age to be related to EF. This study adds to the emerging body of literature showing that very preterm birth is associated with EF impairments.     

Parent Socialization of Coping and Child Emotion Regulation Abilities: A Longitudinal Examination

This study examined the hypothesis that parent socialization of coping (SOC) would have a longitudinal relation with child emotion regulation abilities. Participants included a sample of 256 parents of 5- to 12-year-old children (child M age = 8.36, SD = 2.03, 54.7% male; parent M age = 34.49, SD = 6.20, 59% female). Data on demographic information, parenting behaviors, and child emotion regulation abilities were collected via online questionnaires at baseline and 12 months. Results from longitudinal structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses suggested that parent SOC, measured at baseline, predicted child adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation, measured 12 months later. More specifically, parental engagement coping suggestions predicted child's adaptive emotion regulation, whereas parental disengagement coping suggestions predicted child's maladaptive emotion regulation. Further, child gender emerged as a moderator in the longitudinal association between socialization of engagement coping and child adaptive emotion regulation: Whereas this association was small and marginally significant for girls, it was large and statistically significant for boys. Results highlight the importance of parent SOC as potentially contributing to emotion regulation abilities of 5- to 12-year-olds.     

Training in and implementation of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for depression in the Veterans Health Administration: Therapist and patient outcomes

ObjectiveThe U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has implemented a national dissemination and training initiative to promote the availability of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for depression (ACT-D). This paper reports on therapist and patient outcomes associated with competency-based training in and implementation of ACT-D.MethodTherapist and patient outcomes were assessed on eleven cohorts of therapists (n = 391) and their patients (n = 745).ResultsThree-hundred thirty four therapists successfully completed all requirements of the Training Program. Ninety-six percent of therapists achieved competency by the end of training, compared to 21% at the outset of training. Mixed effects model analysis indicated therapists' overall ACT-D competency scores increased from 76 to 112 (conditional SD = 6.6), p < 0.001. Moreover, training was associated with significantly increased therapist self-efficacy and positive attitudes toward ACT-D. Therapeutic alliance increased significantly over the course of therapy. Mixed effects model analysis revealed that mean BDI-II scores decreased from 30 at baseline assessment to 19 (conditional SD = 5.6) at final assessment, t(367) = ?20.3, p < 0.001. Quality of life scores also increased.ConclusionsTraining in and implementation of ACT-D in the treatment of Veterans is associated with significant increases in therapist competency and robust improvements in patient outcomes.     

Procedural learning and automatization process in children with developmental coordination disorder and/or developmental dyslexia

ObjectiveThere is increasing evidence to suggest that developmental dyslexia (DD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) actually form part of a broader disorder. Their frequent association could be justified by a deficit of the procedural memory system, that subtends many of the cognitive, motor and linguistic abilities that are impaired in both DD and DCD. However, studies of procedural learning in these two disorders have yielded divergent results, and in any case no studies have so far addressed the issue of automatization (dual-task paradigm).MethodsWe administered a finger tapping task to participants aged 8–12 years (19 DCD, 18 DD, and 22 with both DD and DCD) to explore procedural learning and automatic movements in these three groups of children, comparing motor performances at the prelearning stage, after 2 weeks of training, and in a post-training dual-task condition.ResultsFirst, results indicated that all the children were able to learn a sequence of movements and even automatize their movements. Second, they revealed between-groups differences in procedural/automatization learning abilities, setting the DCD group apart from the other two. Third, contrary to our expectations concerning comorbidity, they suggested that the DD + DCD association does not have an additional impact on behavioral performances.     

Gender stereotypes and motor performance: How explicit and implicit stereotypes influence girls standing long jump and anxiety

ObjectivesInducing a negative stereotype toward women usually leads to a decrease in women's motor performance. Given that most studies have focused on explicit stereotype induction among adults, the main aim of this study was to investigate the effects of explicit and implicit gender stereotypes on standing long jump performance in children. The second aim was to investigate the effects of these same manipulations on children’s state anxiety.DesignA mixed model design with within-between-subject was used with standing long jump performance and state anxiety as dependent variables.MethodTwo hundred and four children (Mage = 10.95 years, SDage = 0.85) participated in this study and were randomly assigned, after baseline measurement, into four different groups (i.e., explicit/implicit vs. explicit vs. implicit vs. control). Specifically, participants performed 8 trials of standing long jump (4 trials during the baseline phase and 4 trials during the experimental phase). Children also completed the competitive state Anxiety Inventory at baseline as well as immediately after the trials.ResultsFor motor performance, children in the explicit/implicit group and in the implicit group were negatively affected by the stereotype manipulation during all trials whereas participants in the explicit group were only negatively impacted during the last two trials. However, regarding state anxiety, children were negatively affected after both explicit only and implicit only manipulations and more significantly after explicit/implicit manipulation.ConclusionsThe present research showed that the explicit and implicit manipulations influenced motor performance differently, but that these two manipulations increased state anxiety in the same way. Moreover, the combination of the explicit and implicit inductions leads to a greater significant negative influence on state anxiety but not motor performance.     

L’entraînement de la mémoire de travail par le programme Cogmed et le TDAH

IntroductionAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder. Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity are key symptoms of ADHD. It is typically associated with working memory deficits at the cognitive level. For this reason, interventions have been designed to train working memory in ADHD. Currently, Cogmed Working Memory Training program is the most commonly used and studied program in clinical practice and research. This program is proposed as an intervention for ADHD that targets working memory deficits with specific exercises through intensive training sessions.ObjectivesThe goal of this literature review is to examine the effects of the Cogmed program in children and adolescents with ADHD on working memory, inhibition, non-verbal reasoning, attention functioning, ADHD symptoms and academic achievement. All existing studies on the subject that included a control group (n = 8) are reviewed.ResultsIt is clear from most studies that Cogmed training program increases and verbal and visuospatial working memory (or the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad in Baddeley's model (1986, 2007), among ADHD participants. However, transfer of learning is not demonstrated on other components of working memory that are not directly targeted by the program such as the central executive described in Baddeley's model or the secondary memory defined by Unsworth & Engle (2007). With regards to far transfer measures, results are controversial for inhibition, non-verbal reasoning, ADHD symptoms reported by parents, and reading abilities. No improvement is demonstrated for attentional capacities, ADHD symptoms reported by teachers and mathematic reasoning.ConclusionCogmed training improves verbal and visuospatial working memory, two cognitive functions that play an important role in ADHD. However, Cogmed's exercises need to be modified in order to train more complex working memory components such as the central executive (Baddeley, 1986, 2007) and the secondary memory (Unsworth & Engle, 2007), which are more impaired in ADHD than the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Another approach would be to design programs that can tackle a larger range of cognitive functions that are impaired in ADHD (e.g., inhibition). In future, studies evaluating such modified programs, direct observation instruments that are more sensitive to short-term changes need to be included. Follow-up measures should also be systematically included.     

A developmental perspective on decision making in young soccer players: The role of executive functions

Lately, interest in both domain-specific and domain-general cognitive processes has increased as a means to explain soccer player expertise. While the two types of processes have mostly been studied separately, we sought to connect these lines of research by investigating the role of executive functions in soccer players’ decision making from a developmental perspective. As these cognitive processes as well as their relation might differ between age groups, we took a developmental perspective to better understand this link in a sample of N = 128 soccer players (M_age = 10.69 years, SD = 1.44). Two age groups (younger vs. older players) performed a video-based option-generation and decision-making task that used temporal occlusion. Additionally, executive functions were assessed with standardized computer-based tests. Results show a link between executive functions and sport-specific decision making, most prominent for working memory. Further, older players generated better options and showed better inhibition and cognitive flexibility than younger players. We suggest there is a crucial turning point in cognitive development around the age of 11 years.     

Mental fatigue,anticipated effort,and subjective valuations of exercising predict choice to exercise or not: A mixed-methods study

ObjectivesThis study examined the effects of mental fatigue on people's decisions to engage in an acute bout of exercise quantitatively, through a sequentially mediated pathway consisting of perceived effort and benefit vs. cost valuations and qualitatively, using exit interviews to survey the conscious reasoning behind participants' choices.DesignMixed methods, randomized, experimenter blind to group.MethodParticipants (N = 84, M_age = 19.07 ± 1.86 years) completed either a high cognitive demand (incongruent Stroop) task or low cognitive demand (documentary viewing) task for 12 min. Before and after the cognitive task, participants rated their anticipated effort and subjective evaluations (benefits and costs) of engaging in a 20-min moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise task. After completing the latter ratings, participants chose between the exercise task or a non-exercise task (seated “free time” and use of smartphone or computer). Participants were led to believe they would actually engage in the task; however, once their choice was made, they were not required to complete the task but were invited to complete a semi-structured interview to probe the reasoning behind their choice.ResultsSerial mediation analyses revealed a significant indirect effect from mental fatigue to choice through perceived effort and benefit vs. cost valuations (95% C.I. = −0.01 to −0.0004). Qualitative data, organized by categories based on group/choice pairings, yielded twelve unique codes explaining how the cognitive tasks affected choice.ConclusionsResults demonstrate mental fatigue alters decision-making through a sequentially mediated process including subjective perceptions of effort, benefits, and costs. Interview responses also highlight the individual-level consequences of completing cognitively demanding and non-demanding tasks on effort-based decision-making. Future research should explore additional feeling states as they relate to people's choices to engage in exercise or sedentary behaviors.     

Obsessive beliefs and uncertainty in obsessive compulsive and related patients

Background/objectiveThe aim of the present study was to examine obsessive beliefs and intolerance of uncertainty differences among patients Obsessive compulsive disoreder (OCD), trichotillomania, excoriation, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and a control group healthy.Method130 participants between the ages of 17 and 62 years (Mean = 29.56, SD = 11.81) diagnosed with OCD (n = 36), trichotillomania (n = 18), excoriation (n = 17), GAD (n = 31) and a healthy control group (n = 28) were evaluated by Obsessive Beliefs Spanish Inventory-Revised and Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale.ResultsThe trichotillomania group presented one of the highest obsessive beliefs highlighting over-importance of thoughts, thought action fusion-moral, importance of controlling one's thoughts. The OCD group also had higher scores in inflated responsibility and thought action fusion-likelihood. The GAD group excelled in inhibitory and prospective uncertainty. The level of depression influenced obsessive beliefs while anxiety affected inhibitory and prospective uncertainty.ConclusionsCognitive variables such as obsessive beliefs and Intolerance of Uncertainty should be considered in the prevention and intervention of obsessive and anxiety disorders.