Giving and receiving autonomy support in a high-stakes sport context: A field-based experiment during the 2012 London Paralympic Games

ObjectiveRecognizing that high-stakes competitions tend to pressure coaches toward a maladaptive controlling motivating style, we sought to evaluate the capacity of an intervention to help coaches adopt a more autonomy-supportive style as they and their athletes prepared for the 2012 London Paralympic Games.DesignWe adopted a coach-focused experimental research design that longitudinally assessed coaches' and athletes' self-report, rater-scored, and objective dependent measures.MethodWe randomly assigned 33 coaches and their 64 athletes from 10 sports into either an experimental or control group and assessed their motivation and functioning longitudinally.ResultsIn the control group, athletes and coaches both showed a significant longitudinal deterioration in all measures of motivation, engagement, and functioning. In the experimental group, none of the measures of motivation, engagement, and functioning deteriorated but, instead, were generally maintained. In terms of performance, athletes of coaches in the experimental group won significantly more Olympic medals than did athletes in the control group.ConclusionEnacting an autonomy-supportive coaching style within the context of a high-stakes sports competition functioned as an antidote to coaches' otherwise situationally-induced controlling style.     

An exploration of doping-related perceptions and knowledge of disabled elite athletes in the UK and Austria

IntroductionCompared to anti-doping research in Olympic sport, the issue of doping is under-researched and poorly understood in Paralympic sport. However, with the growth of the Paralympic Games and the increased number of disabled elite athletes, the number of doping controls and doping cases has also increased. Therefore, there is a need to address the dearth of evidence in disabled sport contexts and develop an understanding of disabled elite athletes' perceptions, reasons and knowledge related to doping to ensure appropriate policy and programmes are implemented.MethodSixteen disabled elite athletes from Austria (n = 9) and the UK (n = 7) participated in semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed using inductive reflexive thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2019a).FindingsFour themes were generated during the analysis. The first showed that athletes perceive doping to be a well-known and wide-spread issue in Paralympic sport. The second theme illustrated that disabled elite athletes are exposed to extreme pressure (e.g., to earn money), which they state poses a risk for using prohibited methods and/or substances. Thirdly, athletes suggested that there are several ways to cheat if someone would like to find ‘loopholes’ (e.g., misuse of Therapeutic Use Exemptions) in the current anti-doping system, which they reported only works partially. Lastly, although it is not officially named as an anti-doping rule violation, athletes proposed cheating on classification as a form of doping – and the greatest threat to the integrity of disabled sport.ConclusionsFor the first time, the current study shows that doping in the context of disabled elite sport likely stems from only a few main factors; a perception of pressure and faults in the anti-doping system. To address these risks, prize money could be distributed more broadly, the TUE process and classification system should be more closely scrutinised, and targeted anti-doping education that addresses the main risk factors in disabled elite sport should be provided for all athletes and their support team worldwide.     

Achievement Motivation among High School Basketball and Cross-Country Athletes: A Personal Investment Perspective

Abstract

Goal perspective research in the sport setting has primarily focused on task and ego goal orientations, while failing to address the influence of social goals (e.g., Urdan & Maehr, 1995). Maehr and Braskamp's (1986) personal investment theory allows researchers to examine achievement motivation from a multidimensional perspective that incorporates social factors of motivation. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the nature of the personal incentives, sense of self, and perceived options (Maehr & Braskamp, 1986) of basketball and cross-country athletes via semi-structured interviews. Results from content analyses revealed that athletes defined positive and negative experiences through task-, ego-, and socially-oriented personal incentives as well as sense of self and perceived options components. Socially-oriented personal incentives and sense of self components were more prevalent for the basketball athletes than for the cross-country athletes. Notable sport group differences suggest the need to further examine social factors of motivation with a broader representation of individual and team sport athletes.     

Athletes' perceptions of multilevel changes related to competing at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games

ObjectivesTaking into account the need for applied research on the most effective ways to prepare Olympians psychologically, the first purpose of this study was to gain more insight into the changes perceived by four athletes in view of their participation in the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. The second purpose of this study was to illustrate how using a holistic and dynamic approach to the identification of the perceptions of these athletes' Olympic experiences can provide information relevant for the provision of individual ASP support to these athletes.DesignUsing a prospective design athletes' perceptions of changes were gathered prior, during as well as after the Olympic Games.MethodsA combination of interview (pre and post Olympic Games) and self-reporting (during Olympic Games) was used to describe athletes' perceptions of changes occurring at athletic, psychological, psychosocial, academic/vocational level.ResultsResults confirmed in first instance athletes' perceptions of the multifaceted nature of their Olympic experience. In second instance, the use of a dynamic and holistic perspective allowed to identify that participants perceived (a) during the phase prior to the Olympic Games 14 changes at all four levels, (b) during the Olympic Games eight changes at three levels, and (c) during the phase after returning from the Olympic Games 11 changes having occurred at four levels.ConclusionsThis study showed the usefulness of using a dynamic and holistic perspective not only in order to identify athletes' perceptions of their Olympic experiences, but also to enhance ASP practitioners' knowledge on the needs for a holistic and dynamic ASP-support provision. In this way, the effectiveness and efficiency of ASP practitioners working with athletes preparing for, or competing at the Olympic Games could be enhanced.     

Coping with the Media at the Vancouver Winter Olympics: “We All Make a Living Out of This”

The purpose of this study was to examine the journalist-athlete relationship at a major competitive event to better understand how the media may be perceived as a source of strain and how elite athletes cope with the media demands. Ten participants were interviewed after the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. Intrusive questioning may negatively affect and influence the athlete's preparation for events. The use of coping strategies to deal with the media demands and reporting becomes important. In addition, the team support personnel should employ mastery motivational strategies to keep the athlete task involved.     

Olympic athletes back to retirement: A qualitative longitudinal study

ObjectiveIn this qualitative longitudinal study we assess the retirement process of Olympic athletes. We aim to evaluate the influence that following a dual career or being exclusively focused on sport can have in this process. We compare athletes' prospective views before retirement (Torregrosa, Boixadós, Valiente, & Cruz, 2004) with their retrospective accounts ten years later. This allows us to assess athletes' accuracy in predicting the process and its outcomes in relation to the trajectory followed.DesignWe designed a qualitative longitudinal study (Epstein, 2002) conducting semi-structured interviews.MethodFifteen Olympic athletes were interviewed twice. Thematic analysis was performed on the qualitative data comparing prospective views and retrospective accounts of: (a) retirement planning, (b) voluntary termination, (c), multiple personal identities, (d) availability of social support, and (e) active coping strategies.ResultsTen athletes reported positive transitions related to their favorable approach to the five categories above. Most athletes reporting positive transitions followed dual careers (i.e., parallel or convergent trajectories). Five out of fifteen athletes reported unexpected difficulties in the transition. Four of these followed a linear trajectory during their sporting career. A clear view of retirement in the prospective interviews also facilitated retirement for an athlete following a linear trajectory. While a diffuse view of retirement in the prospective interview signaled future difficulties.ConclusionResults from this qualitative longitudinal study suggest that promoting dual careers in elite sport and working on the prospective view of retirement can facilitate retirement from elite sport and the transition to an alternative professional career.     

From “blessing in disguise” to “what do I do now?”: How Canadian Olympic and Paralympic hopefuls perceived,experienced, and coped with the postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Games

The purpose of this study was to explore how Canadian elite athletes perceived, experienced, and coped with the Covid-19 pandemic and postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Games. We conducted semi-structured interviews with seven Paralympic and 14 Olympic hopefuls (n = 21). Data were analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. Due to halting of training and competition and inabilities to live out the coveted performance narrative emphasizing winning above all, participants experienced complex emotional webs and questioned their purpose as athletes, which catalyzed psychological disruption. They coped by reframing the postponement as an opportunity for growth and risk-free chance to challenge the performance narrative through the embodiment of a reclaimed time narrative and associated attempts to diversify identities in non-sport domains. The findings highlight how the sociocultural environment impacts athletes’ agency to self-regulate in response to unexpected and dynamic athletic career-related events, thereby prompting the negotiation of concomitant psychological (dis)stress and growth.     

An adolescent perspective on injury recovery and the return to sport

ObjectivesThe purpose of this investigation was to examine adolescent athletes' injury recovery and return-to-sport experiences. Given previous research highlighting competence, autonomy, and relatedness concerns among returning athletes (Podlog & Eklund, 2006), we sought to examine the extent to which basic psychological needs theory (BPNT: Ryan & Deci, 2007) could be used as framework for interpreting the research findings.DesignA qualitative design was employed in the present investigation.MethodEleven Australian athletes (M age = 15.3) who had incurred a range of severe injuries (e.g., anterior cruciate ligament tears, shoulder dislocations) were interviewed on 2–3 occasions (n = 27 interviews) spanning an 11-month period.ResultsAnalysis of the data revealed the following four key themes: (a) injury stress, (b) coping strategies, (c) experiences with social support, and (d) recovery outcomes. Injury stress provides insights into a range of stressors and strain responses reported by the adolescents across the recovery phases, while the theme on coping highlights the specific strategies used to maintain motivation, reduce uncertainties associated with the injury experience, and to keep focused on future athletic attainment. The third theme, experiences with social support, considers the transactions the adolescents held with members of their social network throughout their recovery. The final theme, recovery outcomes, describes participant perceptions of a successful/unsuccessful recovery and stress-related growth.ConclusionsResults suggest that competence and relatedness issues highlighted in BPNT may be relevant in exploring adolescent athletes' injury experience. Somewhat less evidence for the autonomy dimension of BPNT was apparent in adolescent comments.     

"If we work hard,we can do it" a tale from an olympic (gold) medallist

The purpose of this study was to gain day-to-day insight into how an elite athlete experiences competing in the Olympic Games with regard to perceived stress, the subsequent coping efforts, and the maintenance of a positive response outcome expectancy. One Norwegian female soccer player wrote a journal throughout the pre-camp and the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney. "Tina" employed a range of coping strategies, both problem-focused and emotion focused, when faced with challenges such as feeling a lack of self-confidence and the team losing the first match. However, she kept a strong belief in her team's ability to win and had a strong positive response outcome expectancy throughout the targeted period. The team won the Olympic Gold medal and Tina attributed this achievement to the hard work everybody on the team had exhibited over a long period of time. The results of this qualitative analysis are discussed with respect to contemporary theories of stress, coping, and motivation.     

Athlete perspectives on the enablers and barriers to nutritional adherence in high-performance sport

ObjectivesPoor adherence to nutritional guidance by athletes may compromise their health and performance. Enhancing adherence is therefore an important performance and welfare strategy. The aim of this study was to qualitatively explore the barriers and enablers of elite athletes' adherence to nutritional guidelines.DesignUnderpinned by our constructionist epistemological position and our relativist ontology, we conducted a qualitative study using focus groups.MethodsWe used the Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation Behaviour (COM-B) model and the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to conduct focus group discussions with a purposive sample of 39 UK-based funded athletes (mean age = 23 ± 3.81), participating in either Olympic and Paralympic sport (n = 30) or professional sport (n = 9), who had access to a nutritionist. Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis.ResultsAthlete adherence to nutritional guidance was seasonal and included inadequate energy intakes and episodes of binge eating. Underpinning these behaviours, athletes' emotional barriers (motivation) are reinforced through their social interactions within the high-performance environment (opportunity) and athletes' training environment limits developmental opportunities for food planning (capability). However, a holistic-developmental approach by the sports nutritionists (opportunity) supports athlete wellbeing and nutritional adherence.ConclusionThese findings advance theoretical understanding of the barriers and enablers of nutritional adherence amongst elite-level athletes in high-performance sport and present a number of significant implications for athlete support personnel seeking to enhance performance in demanding sporting contexts. Drawing on the Behaviour Change Wheel (BCW), recommendations include the need to 1) train and educate sports nutritionists in human behaviour, 2) update regulations for sports nutrition profession practice to acknowledge the skills required to support athletes' emotional wellbeing, 3), educate coaches on the sensitivity of body weight and composition and develop guidelines for monitoring athletes' body weight and composition in sport, 4) persuade influential leaders to develop culture guidelines that shift the performance-narrative of high-performance (i.e., environmental restructuring).     

Teammate social support,burnout, and self-determined motivation in collegiate athletes

ObjectiveThere is limited understanding of how specific components of social support are associated with athlete burnout and self-determined motivation, as most investigations have exclusively targeted overall support satisfaction. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine if perceived support availability and received support, over and above support satisfaction, were associated with these correlates of psychological well-being in athletes. We also examined potential team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation.DesignCross-sectional.MethodUnited States college athletes (N = 235; M_age = 19.8 years) completed reliable and valid assessments of study variables via an online questionnaire.ResultsMultilevel linear modeling showed a lack of team-level variation in burnout and self-determined motivation. Regression analyses showed perceived support availability to be inversely associated with burnout and positively associated with self-determined motivation. This was over and above support satisfaction, which demonstrated the same pattern of associations. Received support did not meaningfully associate with burnout or self-determined motivation over and above support satisfaction.ConclusionResults suggest that the perception of support availability from teammates, regardless of received support, was an important correlate of burnout and self-determined motivation in sport. Also, the general lack of team-level variation in the criterion variables suggests that burnout and self-determined motivation perceptions were largely driven by individual experiences.     

Relationships among Athletic Identity,Coping Skills,Social Support,and the Psychological Impact of Injury in Recreational Participants

Abstract

The purpose of the present investigation was to examine athletic identity, coping skills, and social support as moderators of mood disturbance and physical self-esteem with the occurrence of injury in recreational participants. Thirty participants, who sustained an injury that prohibited physical activity for at least 6 weeks, completed a battery of questionnaires including measures of social support (Sarason, Levine, Basham, & Sarason, 1983), coping skills (Smith, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1990), athletic identity (Brewer, Van Raalte, & Linder, 1993), mood state (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971), and physical self-esteem (Fox & Corbin, 1989). Results from multiple regression analysis revealed that individuals' satisfaction with their social support network was significantly related to mood disturbance with increased satisfaction leading to lower levels of mood disturbance. No other relationships were significant. Results are discussed within the context of cognitive appraisal models of adjustment in order to better understand the injury process.     

Imagery and self-efficacy in the injury context

ObjectivesTo develop and test the factorial validity of an adapted version of the Athletic Injury Imagery Questionnaire (AIIQ-2: Sordoni, Hall, & Forwell, 2002). To explore the effect of an imagery intervention on self-efficacy in the sport injury context.DesignStudy 1, cross-sectional; Study 2, multiple-base line.MethodIn Study 1 the AIIQ-2 was adapted to include a pain management subscale. This adapted imagery questionnaire (AIIQ-3) was then administered to 291 injured athletes (M age = 28.64 years, SD = 14.30). In Study 2 using a multiple-baseline single subject design, the effects of an imagery intervention on self-efficacy prior to physiotherapy treatment of five athletes with a Type B malleolar fracture (M age = 49.50 years, SD = 16.56) was examined. A follow-up post-experimental interview explored participants' perceptions of the intervention.ResultsStudy 1, confirmatory factor analysis revealed evidence for the factorial validity of the AIIQ-3. Study 2, results from the multiple-base line design demonstrated that for two out of the five participants there were observable and statistically meaningful increases in task efficacy, with the same result in three out of five participants for coping efficacy. The post-interview results revealed that all intervention participants perceived the intervention to be beneficial and effective beyond the general information provided.ConclusionsThe results are discussed in terms of overcoming an inherent weakness in previous injury-related imagery research and the applied implications for the time-course of rehabilitation.     

Social-contextual and intrapersonal antecedents of coaches' basic need satisfaction: The intervening variable effect of providing autonomy-supportive coaching

ObjectivesBased on Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2012) and in line with Mageau and Vallerand's (2003) motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, a new model involving antecedents associated with coaches' self-report measure of total need satisfaction (TNS) was tested. This model hypothesized that: (1) coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching would relate positively to coaches' provision of autonomy-supportive coaching (ASC), whereas perception of parental pressure in the youth sport context would relate negatively to coaches' provision of ASC; (2) coaches' provision of ASC towards their athletes would, in turn, relate positively to their self-report measure of TNS; and (3) the relation between coaches' perceptions of the sport context, along with their self-determined motivation for coaching, and coaches' self-report measure of TNS would be mediated by coaches' own provision of ASC.DesignA cross-sectional study.MethodsParticipants were 222 (M_age = 42.3, SD = 6.1) youth soccer coaches.ResultsSEM analyses supported the hypothesized model in which coaches' perceptions of a socially united group of athletes and their self-determined motivation for coaching related positively to coaches' self-report measure of TNS through coaches' provision of ASC. In contrast, coaches' perceptions of parental pressure in the youth sport context was unrelated to coaches' self-report measure of TNS via coaches' provision of ASC.ConclusionsFindings support previous research by demonstrating the psychological benefit of providing autonomy support to others.     

Autonomy support from parents and coaches: Synergistic or compensatory effects on sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes?

ObjectivesThis study examined how autonomy support from parents and autonomy support from coaches are associated with sport-related outcomes of adolescent-athletes. Two alternative hypotheses were proposed: (a) a synergistic socialization interaction in which high levels of autonomy support provided by parents and coaches are both needed to obtain the most positive sport-related outcomes, (b) a compensatory-protective interaction in which coaching autonomy support is more important for sport-related outcomes in athletes perceiving lower levels of parental autonomy support.DesignTwo studies using prospective designs.MethodStudy 1 was conducted with adolescent soccer players (N = 46) and Study 2 was conducted with gymnasts (N = 85). In both studies, athletes reported the extent to which they perceived their parents and coaches provided autonomy support. Athletes also completed scales assessing their motivation toward sport (Studies 1 and 2), situational motivation prior to and following a competition (Study 2), and need satisfaction (Study 1). Sport achievement and performance were also assessed in the form of goal attainment (Study 1), self-reported achievement following the competition (Study 2), and flow states (Study 2). Hierarchical moderated regressions were conducted in order to test our competing hypotheses.ResultsAnalyses provided support for the compensatory-protective interaction hypothesis. Coaching autonomy support was more strongly related to sport motivation, need satisfaction, sport achievement, and flow in athletes who perceived lower level of parental autonomy support.ConclusionsThis research program provided support for the study of the interactive effect of perceived autonomy support from distinct socialization agents (i.e., parents and coaches) and its impact on adolescent-athletes.     

‘Believe in Yourself,Channel Energy,and Play Your Trumps’: Olympic preparation in complex coordination sports

ObjectivesThis paper is aimed at (a) analysing the psychological context of complex coordination sports (CCSs) and specific contextual factors related to Olympic Games, (b) sharing the authors' experiences in Olympic preparation of athletes in diving, figure skating, and artistic and rhythmic gymnastics with an emphasis on typical working issues and strategies; and (c) summarizing the authors' reflections on the role of the national sport system and cultural contexts in Olympic preparation and major lessons learnt in working with Olympic athletes.Design and MethodAnalysing and structuring the authors' professional experiences in working with Olympic athletes in CCSs based on the scientist-practitioner model.ResultsMajor results include (a) a summary of psychological context for Olympic athletes in CCSs; (b) the temporal structure of Olympic preparation; (c) four categories of Olympic athletes; (d) consultants' strategies, reflecting major psychological aspects of Olympic preparation in CCSs; and (e) lessons learnt in working with Olympic athletes in CCSs.ConclusionThe authors emphasize the large responsibility of sport psychology practitioners working with Olympic athletes in CCSs and share lessons learnt, with a focus on seven major sport psychology approaches validated in their practice.     

Youth athletes’ perception of autonomy support from the coach, peer motivational climate and intrinsic motivation in sport setting: One-year effects

Objectives

Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and achievement goal theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1989), the present study examined the temporal stability and reciprocal relationships among three key variables related to motivation: perceived autonomy support from the coach, task-involving peer motivational climates, and athletes’ intrinsic motivation.

Design

A prospective longitudinal design with data collected on two occasions one year apart over the course of a youth training season.

Method

Young athletes (N = 362, age range 11-16 years) completed measures of the Sport Climate Questionnaire and the Peer Motivational Climate in Youth Sport Questionnaire. One-year later participants completed these questionnaires again along with the Sport Motivation Scale.

Results

Structural equation modeling indicated that perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climates exhibited comparatively high stability over a one-year period. In cross-lagged analyses, perceived autonomy support from the coach positively predicted task-involving peer climate one-year later but not vice versa. In addition, both social factors demonstrated a significant direct effect on athletes intrinsic motivation measured concurrently in sport contexts. Further, an alternative structural model supported a longitudinal direct effect of autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer climate measured on the first occasion on subsequent intrinsic motivation.

Conclusion

Results demonstrated the value of perceived autonomy support from the coach and task-involving peer motivational climate in predicting athletes’ intrinsic motivation over a training year. Findings also suggest that perceived autonomy support from the coach can facilitate later task-involving peer motivational climate.     

A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early career sports participants: Coach,parent and peer influences on sport motivation

ObjectivesThe objectives of this research were a) to explore the applicability of ‘motivational climate’ research to early career athletes under the age of twelve, b) to re-examine the concept of ‘motivational climate’ in the light of recent scientific developments, and c) to concurrently study the influences of coaches, parents and peers on athletic motivation.Design and MethodUsing a qualitative design, 40 participants (7–11 years of age) from various sports were interviewed in focus groups, using a semi-structured format to investigate the roles played by coaches, parents, and peers in influencing athlete motivation. An inductive content analysis was conducted to determine which behaviours among these social agents influenced key motivational outcomes.FindingsThe analysis indicated that young athletes experience a motivational climate which shows consistencies with existing models of motivation; suggesting this population is worthy of further study. The influences of coaches related most strongly to the manner in which they perform their roles of instruction and assessment, whereas parents' influences were most salient in terms of the way they support the child's participation and learning. Both parents and coaches exerted influences through their leadership styles, affective responses and pre-performance behaviours. Peers influenced participants' motivation through competitive behaviours, collaborative behaviours, evaluative communications and through their social relationships.ConclusionsThis study provides an insight into the motivational climate experienced by young athletes and helps to delineate the different roles of social agents in influencing their motivation at this early stage of development.     

Exploring adversity and the potential for growth among elite female athletes

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to (a) explore experiences of adversity and (b) to examine perceptions of growth following adversity among elite female athletes.MethodsSemi-structured interviews were conducted with five elite female athletes (ages 18–23 years) who competed internationally in track and field, swimming, long-distance running, and basketball. Interviews were analyzed using an interpretative phenomenological approach (Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009).ResultsIncidents of performance slumps, coach conflicts, bullying, eating disorders, sexual abuse, and injuries were reported. The shared ‘essential’ features of participants’ experiences of adversity were isolation/withdrawal, emotional disruption, questioning identity as an athlete, and understanding experiences within a context of perceived expectations. It appeared that as participants sought and found meaning in their experiences, they identified opportunities for growth associated with social support and also as they realized the role of sport in their lives. Aspects of growth include realizing strength, gaining perspective of their problems, and gaining a desire to help others. Athletes’ experiences with adversity were seen as part of an ongoing journey through elite sport.ConclusionsAthletes’ experiences of adversity may have initiated a process of questioning their identities and searching for meaning in their experiences. Findings highlighted the complexity associated with social support and athletes’ growth following adversity. Growth following adversity appears to be a valuable area of research among elite athletes.