Contesting orientations,self-determined motivation,and sportspersonship: Further validation of the contesting orientations scale

ObjectivesTo examine the factorial validity of the Contesting Orientations Scale (COS) in a large sample of intercollegiate student-athletes, as well as to extend evidence of the COS’ concurrent validity by examining its relationship to autonomous and controlled motivations in sport. The ability of contesting orientations to predict sportspersonship over and above autonomous and controlled motivations was also examined.DesignCross-sectional and correlational.MethodsFive hundred and forty-four intercollegiate US athletes (57.2% male) from individual and team sports completed measures of contesting orientations, autonomous and controlled motivations, and sportspersonship.ResultsConfirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported the factorial validity of the COS, while correlational results supported its concurrent construct validity, with autonomous motivation associated with higher levels of partnership orientation and controlled motivation associated with higher levels of war orientation. In addition, sequential regression analyses supported the predictive utility of contesting orientations, with partnership orientation emerging as a significant positive predictor of four – and war orientation a negative predictor of three – dimensions of sportspersonship. Mediation analyses suggested that contesting orientations may partially mediate the relationship between autonomous and controlled motivations for some dimensions of sportspersonship.ConclusionsThe COS is a valid and reliable measure of contesting orientations. Partnership and war contesting orientations, moreover, add significantly to the prediction of sportspersonship over and above autonomous and controlled motivations. In practice, if the goal is to promote good sportspersonship, coaches and other adults involved in competitive sport should emphasize a partnership contesting orientation in addition to more autonomous forms of motivation.     

Associations Between Sport Participation,Goal and Sportspersonship Orientations,and Moral Reasoning

This study examined associations between level of sport participation, goal and sportspersonship orientations, and moral reasoning in sport and nonsport situations and orientation by sport participation interactions. Participants were individuals with elite (n = 176), high school (n = 183), and youth sport (n = 78) participation. When judging sport situations, individuals who participated in elite sports demonstrated poorer moral reasoning than those who participated in high school and youth sports. At low levels of sportspersonship, individuals who participated in youth sports demonstrated higher moral reasoning than those who participated in high school and elite sports. When judging nonsport situations, moral reasoning was positively related to positive sportspersonship and negatively related to ego orientation but did not differ by sport participation. Within sport, sport participation and goal and sportspersonship orientations play a critical role in moral reasoning. However, these orientations may be more important than sport participation in moral reasoning beyond the sport context.     

Contesting orientations: Measure construction and the prediction of sportspersonship

ObjectiveThis three-study investigation was undertaken to develop, validate, and test the Contesting Orientations Scale (COS), a new measure designed to assess individuals' tendencies to use contest-is-partnership and contest-is-war conceptual metaphors (i.e., contesting orientations) when competing (Shields & Bredemeier, 2009, 2011a).DesignThe research design was correlational. Following preliminary item creation and expert review, survey based studies were conducted to develop theoretically-based, psychometrically sound scales measuring contesting orientations.MethodIn Study 1, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed on a preliminary 39-item COS administered to a sample of high school athletes (N = 233). Study 2 used EFA to evaluate a revised 23- item COS with a second sample of high school athletes (N = 92) resulting in a final reduction of the measure to twelve items. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then conducted on this 12-item COS, which proved an excellent fit to the data. A new sample of college athletes (N = 238) allowed Study 3 to (a) further examine the factorial validity of the COS, including gender invariance testing, (b) assess the concurrent validity of the COS via its correlations with goal orientations, empathy, moral identity, and moral disengagement; and, (c) assess the COS's incremental predictive utility for investigations of sportspersonship.Results and conclusionResults from the sequence of studies demonstrate that the 12-item, two-scale COS has good psychometric properties as assessed through EFA and CFA, good concurrent validity, and adds significantly to existing measures in the prediction of sportspersonship.     

The Integration of Personal Identity,Religious Identity,and Moral Identity in Emerging Adulthood

The present study investigated the relative roles of identity structure (i.e., personal identity) and identity contents (i.e., religious identity and moral identity) in predicting emerging adults’ prosocial and antisocial behaviors. The sample included 9,495 college students. A variable-centered analysis (path analysis) used personal identity, religious identity, and moral identity as predictors of prosocial and antisocial behavior and tested interactions of personal identity with religious identity and moral identity. Moral identity was the strongest predictor of both behaviors, and religious identity and moral identity both interacted with personal identity in predicting antisocial behavior. A person-centered analysis (latent profile analysis) found three classes: integrated, moral identity–focused, and religious identity–focused, with integrated being most adaptive on both outcomes.     

Social identity and prosocial and antisocial behavior in youth sport

ObjectivesTo examine (a) the effects of social identity on prosocial and antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents, and (b) whether any effects of social identity on prosocial and antisocial behavior were mediated by cohesion.DesignProspective, observational.MethodsMale and female youth–sport participants (N = 329; M_age = 15.88 years) completed questionnaires at the beginning, middle and end of the season assessing three dimensions of social identity (cognitive centrality, ingroup ties, ingroup affect), cohesion (task, social) and prosocial and antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents.ResultsWith the exception of cognitive centrality (which was therefore not analyzed further), all measures of study variables proved reliable. Structural equation modeling indicated the following: Ingroup affect had a positive effect on prosocial teammate behavior, Task cohesion mediated a positive effect of ingroup ties on prosocial teammate behavior and a negative effect of ingroup ties and ingroup affect on antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents. Social cohesion mediated a positive effect of ingroup ties on antisocial behavior toward teammates and opponents. Prosocial opponent behavior was not predicted by any dimension of social identity.ConclusionThe findings highlight that social identity may play a salient role in regulating prosocial and antisocial behavior in youth sport, and changes in cohesion may partially explain these effects.     

Identity, Reasoning, and Emotion: An Empirical Comparison of Three Sources of Moral Motivation

Prior research on moral motivation has primarily emphasized moral reasoning and moral emotion; however, identity may also play an important role. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relative importance of prosocial identity, prosocial moral reasoning, and empathy in predicting prosocial behavior. The sample included 91 university students, ages 19–35 years (M=21.89; SD=3.01; 80% European American; 65% female). Prosocial identity and empathy, but not prosocial moral reasoning, were positively associated with overall prosocial behavior. Exploratory analyses examined how these three sources of prosocial motivation differentially related to six forms of prosocial behavior. Results suggest the importance of considering the roles of all three sources of moral motivation.     

Follow the leader: Identity leadership and moral behaviour in social situations among youth sport teammates

ObjectivesAlthough social identity has been linked to moral behaviour in past research, we know less about how the identity-enhancing behaviours of athlete leaders may relate to the experience of prosocial and antisocial behaviour between youth sport teammates. This study examined the relations between perceptions of athlete identity leadership and moral behaviour in social situations outside of training and competition.MethodsParticipants were 130 competitive male and female youth ice hockey players (M_age = 13.45 years, SD = 1.82, range = 10–17) from nine teams in a Northeastern Ontario city in Canada. Measures of identity leadership and moral behaviour were completed concurrently within the final three weeks of the regular season.ResultsUsing structural equation modeling, results demonstrated a significant positive association between identity leadership and both engaging in prosocial behaviour toward teammates (β = .37, p = .003) and receiving prosocial behaviour from teammates (β = 0.40, p < .006), accounting for 34% and 51% of the variance in each prosocial outcome, respectively. Although the relations with antisocial behaviour (engaged and received) were in the expected negative direction, the path estimates were not significant (ps > .23).ConclusionThese findings further our understanding of identity leadership in youth sport generally, offering insight into the relations between identity-enhancing athlete leader behaviours and moral behaviour. The findings also extend past moral behaviour research to consider the social situations in which teammates find themselves outside of training and competition.     

Achievement Goal Orientations,Perceived Ability,and Sportspersonship in Youth Soccer

The present study was designed to examine the contribution of goal orientations and the influence of perceived ability as a moderating factor in predicting sportspersonship in competitive youth soccer. Participants were 511 Norwegian male youth soccer players, from ages 13 to 16, participating in the Norway Cup International Football Tournament. Findings revealed that high task-oriented participants consistently endorsed sportspersonship. However, participants who were high in ego orientation and high in task orientation only partially endorsed low sportspersonship. Perceived ability was a significant factor in that players high in ego orientation and low in perceived ability expressed the lowest respect for rules and officials and endorsed cheating behavior to reach their goals. In contrast, participants high in perceived ability and low in ego orientation expressed the highest level of respect for rules and officials. In this study, being high or low in ego orientation had a significant effect on sportspersonship.     

Swedish youth football players’ attitudes towards moral decision in sport as predicted by the parent-initiated motivational climate

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine associations between late adolescent football players’ perceptions of the motivational climate – as initiated by mothers and fathers – and attitudes towards moral decision making in sports.DesignCross-sectional.MethodsParticipants were 213 Swedish football players (144 males, 67 females) aged 16–19 years who completed measures assessing perceived parent-initiated motivational climate (i.e., success-without-effort climate [SWEC]; worry conducive climate [WCC]; and learning/enjoyment climate [LEC]) and attitudes towards moral decision-making in sport (i.e., acceptance of cheating [AOC]; acceptance of gamesmanship [AOG] and keeping winning in proportion [KWIP]).ResultsCanonical correlations demonstrated moderate positive relations between parent-initiated − both mother and father − performance climates (WCC and SWEC) and AOC and AOG. Moreover, the relationship between mother and father-initiated learning/enjoyment climate (LEC) were shown to be moderately and positively associated with the prosocial attitude dimension of KWIP. Results also showed that a mother-initiated LEC and a mother-initiated SWEC were stronger predictors of the criterion variables (AOC, AOG, and KWIP) than equivalent father-initiated climate dimensions.ConclusionsThe results highlight the importance of considering the relationship between parent-initiated climates − especially initiated by mothers − and the development of moral decision-making among youth football players.     

What Accounts for Prosocial Behavior? Roles of Moral Identity,Moral Judgment,and Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Prior research suggests that moral identity influences individuals’ willingness to engage in prosocial behavior. Little attention, however, has been given to the roles of and relations between moral identity and other factors, such as moral judgment, in accounting for types of prosocial behavior in adolescence. The current study examined the extent to which moral identity, moral judgment, and social self-efficacy contribute to prosocial behaviors in adolescence. Approximately 338 adolescents (M_age?=?13.4 years) completed measures of moral identity, moral judgment, social self-efficacy, and prosocial behavior. Teachers rated adolescents’ prosocial behaviors, which largely corroborated the adolescents’ self-reports. Moral identity was found to predict most types of prosocial behavior. Moral judgment and moral identity were related and jointly predicted altruistic prosocial behaviors, but did not predict helping in front of others. Further, moral identity mediated the relationships between moral judgment and some forms of prosocial behavior (e.g., emotional, volunteering). Self-efficacy beliefs were found to predict some types of prosocial behavior (e.g., public), perhaps providing adolescents with confidence to engage in prosocial action. Overall, moral identity was especially effective in directly accounting for prosocial behavior, and may act as a mediator to bridge the moral judgment–moral action gap among adolescents.     

The moral disengagement in doping scale

Statement of problemThe use of banned substances to enhance performance occurs in sport. Therefore, developing valid and reliable instruments that can predict likelihood to use banned substances is important.MethodWe conducted three studies. In Study 1, football players (N = 506) and athletes from a variety of team sports (N = 398) completed the Moral Disengagement in Doping Scale (MDDS). In Study 2, team sport athletes (N = 232) completed the MDDS and questionnaires measuring moral disengagement in sport, doping attitudes, moral identity, antisocial sport behavior, situational doping temptation, and task and ego goal orientations. A week later, a subsample (n = 102) completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation. In Study 3, athletes (N = 201) from a variety of individual sports completed the MDDS and indicated their likelihood to use a banned substance in a hypothetical situation.ResultsThe results of Study 1 showed that a one-factor model fitted the data well, and the scale had measurement invariance across males and females. In Study 2, we provided evidence for convergent, concurrent, discriminant, and predictive validity, as well as test-rest reliability, of the scale. In Study 3, doping moral disengagement was positively related with reported likelihood and temptation to use a banned substance. The scale exhibited very good internal consistency across the three studies.ConclusionsIn conclusion, the MDDS can be used to measure moral disengagement in doping in team and individual sports.     

Having versus doing: The roles of moral identity internalization and symbolization for prosocial behaviors

Moral identity has been identified as a consistent predictor of prosocial behavior, but the specific relationship and predictive strength of its two dimensions, internalization (“having”) and symbolization (“doing”), are less clear. The current article explores this through two self-report studies. In study 1 (N = 228) a series of hierarchical regression analyses showed that, for three out of four domains of prosocial behavior, symbolization was the only significant predictor, and that its strength differed across outcomes. Building on these results, Study 2 (N = 299) proposed that the observed vs. anonymous nature of prosocial behavior could account for these differences. Unexpectedly, symbolization predicted both public and private behaviors, whereas internalization generally did not. Significant interactions between internalization and symbolization were also observed. These findings are discussed in relation to their theoretical implications and future moral identity research.     

Application of Achievement Goal Theory in an Urban Youth Tennis Setting

The purpose of this study was to examine the motivational responses of tennis players in relation to their goal orientations and perceptions of the motivational climate. Youngsters completed a survey with tennis-specific measures of goal orientations, motivational climate, attitudes toward tennis, their instructor, their fellow players and sportspersonship behaviors. Results support Nicholls' goal perspective theory. Moderated regression analysis suggested that positive perceptions of a task-involving climate and negative perceptions of an ego-involving motivational climate predicted players' attitudes toward sportpersonship, their instructor, and fellow players. Attitudes toward tennis were predicted by task orientation. Canonical analyses further suggested that perceptions of the climate were most strongly related to attitudes.     

Feelings or cognitions? Moral cognitions and emotions as longitudinal predictors of prosocial and aggressive behaviors

There is debate regarding the roles of sociomoral cognitions and emotions in understanding moral development. The short-term longitudinal relations among perspective taking, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, prosocial behaviors and aggression in adolescents were examined. Participants were 489 students (M age = 12.28 years, SD = .48; 232 boys) in public and private schools from predominantly middle class families in Valencia, Spain. Students completed measures of perspective taking, sympathy, prosocial moral reasoning, prosocial behaviors, and aggressive behaviors. Overall, structural equation modeling analyses showed that moral reasoning and emotions were interrelated and predicted both prosocial behaviors and aggression. Discussion focuses on the relevance of both social cognitions and emotions in moral development.     

Morality in Sport: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective

This study used a sample of 314 British athletes (170 male, 144 female) to examine whether social-contextual and personal motivation variables proposed by self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002 Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. 2002. Handbook of self-determination research, Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.  [Google Scholar]) can predict reported levels of sportspersonship and antisocial moral attitudes in sport. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that perceptions of coach autonomy support were positive predictors of athletes’ satisfaction of their psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy. In turn, the three needs were positive predictors of autonomous motivation. Autonomous motivation positively predicted sportspersonship and negatively predicted antisocial moral attitudes in sport. The opposite pattern of results was observed between controlled motivation and the sportspersonship and antisocial moral attitudes variables. The findings emphasize the importance of autonomy supportive environments, psychological need satisfaction, and autonomous motivation for fostering sportspersonship in sport.     

Can contesting orientations predict grittier,more self-controlled athletes?

Grit and self-control are highly desired qualities of character in the sport arena. This two-study investigation used a new theoretical approach, contesting theory, to examine whether contesting orientations could predict these characteristics among intercollegiate athletes. Contesting theory identifies two distinct modes of cognitively processing the meaning and purpose of contesting, one rooted in a contest-is-partnership metaphor and the other a contest-is-war metaphor. Study 1 (N = 799) found that contesting orientations added incremental utility beyond demographic and control variables to the prediction of the two dimensions of grit (perseverance and consistency). Specifically, the partnership orientation positively predicted higher grit scores. Study 2 (N = 1179) replicated the findings of Study 1 with only minor variations and also demonstrated that contesting orientations add to the prediction of self-control. Results are discussed in terms of the practical implications for sport practitioners and, more broadly, the value of contesting theory to positive psychology.     

Organizational Moral Identity Centrality: Relationships with Citizenship Behaviors and Unethical Prosocial Behaviors

This article examines the influence of both individual and organizational moral identity centrality on prosocial behaviors. Furthermore, we hypothesize that the centrality of these two offer a substitute effect on these behavioral outcomes. Validated measures of organizational moral identity centrality and unethical prosocial behavior are introduced. Data were collected via two separate samples, University Greek Life organization members (n = 499) and restaurant workers (n = 137). Regression results supporting that individuals who claim centrality of moral identity and see their organizations to also embrace the centrality are more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors and less likely to commit unethical prosocial acts. Furthermore, results support that both forms of centrality of moral identity were substitutes in terms of affecting these two outcomes. Research that contributes to understanding how individuals within an organization consciously choose to act on behalf of the organization even when these very actions conflict with generally accepted morals of right and wrong within their society is valuable to academics and practitioners alike. This study contributes to this body of knowledge. Despite extensive attention to topics of ethics and identity, previous studies have largely overlooked the impact of an organizational moral identity. Our results provide a framework for understanding the role of moral identity and the prediction of organizational citizenship and unethical prosocial behaviors.     

Four experiments on the relational dynamics and prosocial consequences of gratitude

Abstract

Four experiments utilized experimental inductions of gratitude and behavioral measures of prosociality to explore the effects of 4 variables on gratitude and grateful prosocial outcomes: benefactor similarity (Study 1), intention (Study 2), future benefits (Study 3), and anonymity (Study 4). We consistently found that the receipt of a favor increased prosocial behavior, and this effect was mediated by gratitude. Benefactor similarity did not meaningfully influence either prosocial behavior or gratitude. Although benefactor intention did meaningfully affect gratitude, the effect was too small to influence the mediational effect of gratitude on prosocial behavior. Neither anonymity nor the possibility of future procurement decreased the role of gratitude in distribution; instead, both of these variables may have enhanced the role of gratitude. These data support gratitude as an important component of prosocial behavior and suggest that gratitude may contain an altruistic component, consistent with its relational function.     

Integrating moral and achievement variables to predict doping likelihood in football: A cross-cultural investigation

ObjectivesIn our study, we had two objectives. Our first objective was to test a social-cognitive model of doping in sport. In this model, we examined moral variables (i.e., moral disengagement, moral identity, anticipated guilt) and performance motivational climate as predictors of doping likelihood and whether performance motivational climate moderates the relationship between moral disengagement and doping likelihood. The second objective was to determine whether this model is invariant across sex and country.DesignWe used a cross-sectional design.MethodParticipants were 1495 (729 females) elite football players (mean age 20.4 ± 4.4) recruited from 97 teams in the UK, Denmark and Greece. They completed questionnaires measuring the aforementioned variables.ResultsMoral disengagement positively predicted doping likelihood both directly and indirectly via anticipated guilt. The direct relationship was significant only when performance climate was perceived as average or high. Moral identity negatively predicted doping likelihood via both moral disengagement and anticipated guilt; and performance climate positively predicted doping likelihood. The model was largely invariant across sex and country.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that young elite football players in the UK, Denmark and Greece are less likely to use banned substances to enhance their performance, if they consider being moral an important part of who they are, and if they perceive a low performance climate in their team. Moral identity is likely to trigger feelings of guilt associated with the use of banned substances and to mobilize moral disengagement mechanisms. Our findings highlight the importance of moral variables in deterring the use of banned substances in sport.     

Athletic Identity and Social Goal Orientations as Predictors of Moral Orientation

Moral development, achievement goal, and athletic identity are considered psychological constructs sharing specific cognitive, social, motivational, and behavioral traits. The purpose of the present article is to investigate the relation among moral orientations, athletic identity, and social goal orientations. In addition, the impact of age, gender, type of sport, sport division, and school performance on moral orientation has also been investigated. One hundred forty athletes of artistic gymnastics, rhythmic gymnastics, and acrobatic gymnastics (n?=?29 boys, n?=?111 girls), aged 8 to 17, participated in the research. They belonged to IV, III, II, and I sport divisions. The participants filled in three questionnaires: Moral Orientation Students in Physical Education Questionnaire, Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, and Social Goal Orientation Questionnaire. The results established that moral orientation is related to the athletic identity and achievement social goal constructs, as well as the fact that they affect school performance.