Physical activity participation and physical aggression in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BackgroundAggressive behaviour is a substantial behavioural problem in children and adolescents. This review systematically summarises the current evidence on the relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour and quantifies the effects of physical activity interventions on aggression in children and adolescents.MethodsStudies were identified through a search of five electronic databases (PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, CINAHL and Web of Science) with combinations of three groups of keywords. Two independent reviewers screened and extracted data from the individual studies. The reporting quality and publication bias were assessed. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was systematically summarized. Data (effect sizes) were pooled to investigate the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour. A moderator meta-analysis was performed to identify potential moderators of the effects of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour.ResultsNineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The relationship between physical activity participation and aggressive behaviour was mixed. A significant reduction in aggressive behaviour was observed after physical activity interventions (k = 8, SMD = −0.53, 95% CI [−0.27, −0.79], p < 0.001). The moderator meta-analysis showed that physical activity interventions involving team-based physical activity had greater effects than those involving individual-based physical activity (β = 0.42, SE = 0.18, p = 0.02). In addition, interventions involving physical activity alone were more effective in reducing aggressive behaviour than those that combined physical activity with other activities such as a philosophy course (β = −0.63, SE = 0.11, p < 0.001).ConclusionThe current meta-analysis presents evidence for the effect of physical activity interventions on aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Physical activity–only interventions involving team-based physical activity might be used for preventing or reducing aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents. Possible mechanisms, methodological strengths and weaknesses, implications, and suggestions for future studies were discussed.     

Modeling relationships between physical fitness,executive functioning,and academic achievement in primary school children

ObjectivesThe relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in children has received much attention, however, whether executive functioning plays a mediating role in this relationship is unclear. The aim of this study therefore was to investigate the relationships between physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement, more specifically to test whether the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement is direct or indirect, via executive functioning.DesignCross-sectional.MethodThis study examined 263 children (145 boys, 118 girls), aged 7–12 years, who performed tests on physical fitness, executive functioning, and academic achievement.ResultsIn a structural equation model linking physical fitness to executive functioning and academic achievement there was a significant relationship between physical fitness and executive functioning (r = .43, R² = .19) and academic achievement (r = .33, R² = .11). Adding a relationship from executive functioning to academic achievement resulted in a non-significant direct link between physical fitness and academic achievement (r = −.08, R² = .006). However, a significant indirect relation through executive functioning persisted. The indirect relation between fitness and academic achievement (r = .41), was stronger than both the direct and total relation (r = .33).ConclusionExecutive functioning thus served as a mediator in the relation between physical fitness and academic achievement. This highlights the importance of including executive functioning when studying the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in children.     

Psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between commercial physical activity app use and physical activity engagement

PurposePrevious studies have indicated a relationship between the use of commercial physical activity apps (e.g., Fitbit, Strava) and physical activity engagement. The use of social components of such apps, in particular app-specific communities (connecting with other app users) and existing social networking platforms (e.g., Facebook) have the potential to enhance physical activity. This study aimed to explore the psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between the use of commercial physical activity apps (and their social components) and physical activity engagement.MethodAn online cross-sectional survey assessed physical activity, use of commercial physical activity apps (and their associated social components), and psychological constructs (social support, self-efficacy, motivation, trait competitiveness, trait social comparison).Results1274 adults aged 18–83 years (M_age = 34.1 ± 13.5 years, 87.6% female) participated. App use was positively associated with physical activity engagement. The relationship between app use and physical activity was fully mediated by social support, self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation. Trait competitiveness, but not trait social comparison, moderated the relationship between app use and physical activity. Most features (e.g., sharing posts, providing or receiving encouragement) of the social components of apps were positively associated with psychological constructs linked to engagement in physical activity. Mediation pathways linking features of existing social networking platforms with physical activity were found. Specifically, sharing posts was linked to higher engagement in physical activity via positive associations with self-efficacy, and receiving encouragement with linked to higher engagement in physical activity via positive associations with both self-efficacy and identified regulation. In addition, engagement in comparisons was associated with lower self-efficacy and higher external regulation, and in turn, lower physical activity.ConclusionsThe relationship between the use of commercial physical activity apps and physical activity is underpinned by social support, self-efficacy and autonomous motivations. The findings highlight the importance of trait competitiveness, which should be taken into consideration when leveraging physical activity apps. Overall, the present study demonstrated that commercial physical activity apps (and their social components) hold great potential to increase physical activity engagement given their associations with psychological constructs strongly linked with physical activity.     

Motor ability and self-esteem: The mediating role of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance

ObjectivesOne important issue in sport and exercise psychology is to determine to what extent sports and exercise can help to increase self-esteem, and what the underlying mechanism might be. Based on the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM) and on findings from the sociometer theory, the mediating effect of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance on the longitudinal relationship between motor ability and self-esteem was investigated.DesignLongitudinal study with three waves of data collection at intervals of ten weeks each.Method428 adolescents (46.3% girls, M_age = 11.9, SD = .55) participated in the study, in which they performed three motor ability tests and completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires for physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance, as well as for self-esteem, at all three measuring points.ResultsUsing structural equation modelling procedures, the multiple mediation model revealed both physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance to be mediators between motor ability and self-esteem in the case of boys. In girls, on the other hand, the mediation between motor ability and self-esteem only takes place via physical self-concept.ConclusionsGender differences in the relationship between motor ability and self-esteem suggest gender-specific interventions aimed at promoting self-concept.     

Psychological,social and physical environmental mediators of the SCORES intervention on physical activity among children living in low-income communities

ObjectivesThis study examined mediation effects of socio-ecological variables on accelerometer-determined physical activity among children in the Supporting Children's Outcomes using Rewards, Exercise and Skills (SCORES) intervention.DesignRandomized control trial mediation analysis.MethodsPrimary school children were randomly assigned the SCORES multi-component intervention or control group for the 12-month study. The outcome was accelerometer derived total moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Hypothesized mediators measured in children were physical activity enjoyment and perceived sport competence and social support. Hypothesized mediators measured in parents were family social support, access to physical activity facilities and equipment at home, and perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community. Mediation analyses were conducted using multi-level linear analysis in MPlus.ResultsThere were significant intervention effects for social support from teachers (A = 1.73, SE = 0.88, p = 0.048) and parental perceived access to physical opportunities in the local community (A = 2.69, SE = 1.12, p = 0.016). There were significant associations between changes in perceived sport competence (B = 0.48, SE = 0.36, p = 0.027), parental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community (B = 0.60, SE = 0.26, p = 0.021), and changes in total MVPA. Parental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community was found to have a significant mediating effect on total MVPA (AB = 1.61, 95% CI = 0.06 to 3.95, proportion 13%).ConclusionsParental perceived access to physical activity opportunities in the local community is a potential mechanism of behavior change for children and mediated the effect of the SCORES intervention on objectively measured physical activity.     

Reciprocal relationships between three aspects of physical self-concept,vigorous physical activity,and lung function: A longitudinal study among late adolescents

ObjectivesThis prospective study, of older adolescents, investigated relationships between three aspects of physical self-concept, vigorous physical activity and lung function. In particular, physical competence, general appearance evaluations and body areas satisfaction were expected to predict subsequent physical activity, which, in turn, was expected to explain variation in lung function. In line with the reciprocal effect model, bi-directorial relationships were also tested. Gender was expected to moderate hypothesized relationships.DesignA longitudinal design, with three measurement points (baseline, 2-month follow-up, and 14-month follow-up) was employed.Method551 late adolescents (15–18 years old) provided self-reported data on physical activity, physical competence, body areas satisfaction, and appearance evaluation. Body weight, height, and a lung function index (forced expiratory volume in 1 s, FEV₁) were measured at baseline and at the 14-month follow-up.ResultsModerated mediation analyses indicated that physical competence at baseline predicted vigorous physical activity (2-month follow-up) among young men and women. Baseline body satisfaction and appearance evaluation were also related to vigorous physical activity (2-month follow-up) and this relationship was stronger for men. Vigorous physical activity predicted FEV₁ (14-month follow-up) and this relationship was stronger among women. The reciprocal pattern of relationships was not confirmed.ConclusionsFindings suggest that health promoting interventions should focus particularly on vigorous physical activity among young women, for example by boosting their physical competence.     

Sources of autonomy support,subjective vitality and physical activity behaviour associated with participation in a lunchtime walking intervention for physically inactive adults

ObjectivesBased on Basic Needs Theory (BNT: Deci & Ryan, 1985), this study examined longitudinal relationships between autonomy support from two sources, psychological need satisfaction, subjective vitality and self-reported physical activity during a walking intervention for physically inactive adults. We proposed that autonomy support provided via a walk leader and the overall programme would independently predict change in subjective vitality and physical activity from baseline to week 16 (post-intervention) and at four month follow-up. Further, we proposed that direct relationships among sources of autonomy support and outcomes would be mediated by autonomy, relatedness, and competence need satisfaction.DesignA longitudinal examination.MethodsParticipants (N = 69; n = 63 females, n = 6 males) from a 16-week walking programme completed a multi-section questionnaire measuring the aforementioned variables at three time points, including a four month post-intervention follow-up.ResultsBoth hypotheses were partly supported. Autonomy support from the walk leader positively predicted changes in subjective vitality from baseline to week 16 and in physical activity from baseline to follow-up. Autonomy support from the programme positively predicted changes in subjective vitality from baseline to week 16. Finally, autonomy gained from the walk leader mediated the relationship between autonomy support and subjective vitality, and between perceived autonomy support and physical activity.ConclusionsFindings indicate that autonomy support from both a walk leader and wider programme can predict psychological need satisfaction, subjective vitality and physical activity. Clinicians and researchers implementing future walking interventions may increase physical activity and subjective vitality by facilitating psychological need satisfaction through autonomy support from both sources.     

Does level of motor competence affect the associations between identity health and self-perceptions in adolescents?

BackgroundAdolescence is a particularly important time for the development of self-perceptions and identity as many environmental and personal factors are influential. One relatively unexplored factor is level of motor competence.AimTo examine the relationship between identity health and self-perceptions in male and female adolescents with low motor competence (LMC) compared to typically developing (TD) adolescents.MethodAdolescents (N = 160, 64.4% males, M_age = 14.45 yrs., SD = 0.75) completed the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ), Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence (AIDA), and Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). Based on the AMCQ score, the sample was grouped into LMC and TD. Pearson's product moment correlations between the AIDA and SPPA subscales were derived for gender, competence groups, and gender x competence sub-groups.ResultsOverall, males had lower AIDA scores (healthier identity) than the females and significant associations with all self-perception domains. For females, only scholastic and social competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendship and Global Self-worth (GSW) domains were significantly related to their AIDA score. The adolescents in the LMC group had higher AIDA scores (less-healthier identity) and fewer self-perception domains [scholastic competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendships and GSW] were associated to their AIDA scores. For the TD group, all self-perception domains were significantly correlated with their AIDA scores. When grouped by gender and motor competence, the TD males had the healthiest identity scores which were strongly associated with all self-perception subdomains. For males with LMC, only scholastic competence, behavioural conduct and GSW domains were significantly related with their identity score. Females from both competence groups reported significant associations between physical appearance, close friendships, behavioural conduct, and social competence domains with their identity scores. Scholastic competence was also significantly associated with identity only for females with LMC.ConclusionPositive self-perceptions across a range of domains are associated with a healthier identity, but differ according to level of motor competence and gender. For those with LMC, the self-perception subdomains unrelated to physical activity and sport, such as school-based aspects were associated with a healthier identity. These findings should guide school based interventions to provide support in these domains in order to strengthen self-worth and identity health.     

Testing motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action on device-measured physical activity in the context of a weight loss maintenance digital intervention: A secondary analysis of the NoHoW trial

BackgroundTo date, few digital behavior change interventions for weight loss maintenance focusing on long-term physical activity promotion have used a sound intervention design grounded on a logic model underpinned by behavior change theories. The current study is a secondary analysis of the weight loss maintenance NoHoW trial and investigated putative mediators of device-measured long-term physical activity levels (six to 12 months) in the context of a digital intervention.MethodsA subsample of 766 participants (Age = 46.2 ± 11.4 years; 69.1% female; original NoHoW sample: 1627 participants) completed all questionnaires on motivational and self-regulatory variables and had all device-measured physical activity data available for zero, six and 12 months. We examined the direct and indirect effects of Virtual Care Climate on post intervention changes in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and number of steps (six to 12 months) through changes in the theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms of action during the intervention period (zero to six months), as conceptualized in the logic model.ResultsModel 1 tested the mediation processes on Steps and presented a poor fit to the data. Model 2 tested mediation processes on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and presented poor fit to the data. Simplified models were also tested considering the autonomous motivation and the controlled motivation variables independently. These changes yielded good results and both models presented very good fit to the data for both outcome variables. Percentage of explained variance was negligible for all models. No direct or indirect effects were found from Virtual Care Climate to long term change in outcomes. Indirect effects occurred only between the sequential paths of the theory-driven mediators.ConclusionThis was one of the first attempts to test a serial mediation model considering psychological mechanisms of change and device-measured physical activity in a 12-month longitudinal trial. The model explained a small proportion of variance in post intervention changes in physical activity. We found different pathways of influence on theory-driven motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms but limited evidence that these constructs impacted on actual behavior change. New approaches to test these relationships are needed. Challenges and several alternatives are discussed.Trial registrationISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN88405328. Registered December 16, 2016, https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN88405328.     

Spontaneous and experimentally induced action planning and coping planning for physical activity: A meta-analysis

ObjectivesThe main objective of this review was to provide summary effects for spontaneous and experimentally induced action planning (AP) and coping planning (CP) for physical activity (PA). These summary effects were then used to test key theoretical postulates using meta-analytic path analysis, and examine possible boundary conditions via moderation analyses.DesignThis review employed a quantitative research synthesis design.MethodUsing the method of Lipsey and Wilson (2001), fixed- and random-effects meta-analysis was performed on over 150 effect sizes from 23 correlational and 21 experimental studies. The method of Viswesvaran and Ones (1995) was used to test two mediation models using the correlational meta-analytic data. Group comparisons and meta-regression were used to test moderation.ResultsAmong the correlational studies, findings indicated a medium-to-large summary effect of spontaneous AP (φ = .41) and CP (φ = .38) on PA. Among the experimental studies, results revealed a small-to-medium summary effect (φ = .24) when comparing all experimental conditions versus all controls and a medium-to-large summary effect (φ = .37) when comparing purely planning conditions versus neutral controls. Support was found for AP and CP as partial mediators in the relation between intention and PA. Numerous significant moderators emerged.ConclusionThis review offers the first meta-analytic estimates of both spontaneous and experimentally induced AP and CP for PA, while supporting the role of both spontaneous AP and CP as mediators in both a multiple and sequential mediation model. Relevant moderators will serve to inform future research in this area.     

Internalized weight stigma mediates and moderates physical activity outcomes during a healthy living program for women with high body mass index

ObjectivesTo investigate the influence of internalized weight stigma (IWS) on physical activity (PA) outcomes among women with body mass index (BMI) over 30 kg/m².Design and methodData were drawn from an RCT that included 80 primarily inactive women (94% non-Hispanic/Latina white; mean age = 39.6, SD = 4.1, range = 30.0 to 45.0; mean BMI = 38.0 kg/m², SD = 3.9, range = 30.2–44.8 kg/m². Participants completed a 6 month weight-neutral, health-at-every-size or weight-loss-focused group-based healthy living program. PA enjoyment and engagement in moderate-intensity PA (MI-PA) (at least 30 minutes most days of the week) were assessed at baseline and immediately post-intervention. We used intention-to-treat linear mixed-effects modeling to test IWS as a moderator of changes in MI-PA engagement. We also tested a model whereby the positive effects of participating in the program on engagement in MI-PA would be serially mediated by a reduction in IWS and a concomitant increase in MI-PA enjoyment.ResultsThe weight-neutral and weight-loss-focused data were combined for all analyses. The moderation hypothesis was supported with a significant interaction between IWS and time. Participants had significant gains overall in MI-PA engagement from baseline to post-intervention; however, those with high IWS had an attenuated response. The serial mediation model was also supported. The positive effect of the program on engagement in MI-PA occurred through decreased IWS and increased MI-PA enjoyment.ConclusionsSelf-directed stigma and holding negative attitudes about one's weight interferes with positive changes in PA outcomes. Healthy living programs may be less effective for those most vulnerable unless we aim to reduce IWS.     

Attachment relationships and physical activity motivation of college students

This study was designed to assess the link of attachment relationships with physical activity motivation. Potential mediators of this link were examined in a cross-sectional study targeting college student physical activity motivation and behaviour. Participants completed self-reports of attachment relationships (with mother, father and best friend), self-determined motivation for physical activity, physical activity behaviour and the hypothesised mediator variables of perceived competence, autonomy and relatedness. The results provide support for the mediating role of these variables in the association of father attachment with self-determined motivation. Meaningful variance in self-determined motivation for physical activity and physical activity behaviour was explained. Overall, attachment relationships appear to be relevant, albeit modestly, to physical activity motivation of college students. The findings support continued efforts to integrate attachment and motivational perspectives in the study of college student health behaviour.     

Investigating real-time physical activity behavior using ecological momentary assessment: Effects of mental fatigue and benefit-cost valuations

BackgroundCurrent research investigating the relationship between mental fatigue and physical activity behaviors relies on laboratory-based, experimental studies which lack ecological validity.ObjectiveThis study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess feelings of mental fatigue and subjective evaluations (benefits and costs) as predictors of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the everyday lives of young adults.MethodsOne hundred participants (n = 22 males, n = 78 females, M_age = 20.60 years, 70% meeting or exceeding physical activity guidelines) responded to digital survey prompts up to four times a day and wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days. Moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity in the 180-min time window following each survey prompt was recorded. Data from the 28 survey-moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity epochs were analyzed using multilevel mixed-effects linear modelling.ResultsHigher levels of mental fatigue than one’s average level were associated with engaging in fewer moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity minutes (p = .004) and lower benefit vs. cost scores (p = .001). Higher benefit vs. cost scores than one’s average level were associated with engaging in more minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (p < .001).ConclusionsResults are the first to demonstrate outside the lab, that mental fatigue experienced in everyday life may amplify the perceived costs of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity, with both factors playing a potential role in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity decision-making. Future research may apply insights gained from this study in design and testing of real-time interventions promoting moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity.     

Attachment relationships and physical activity motivation of college students

This study was designed to assess the link of attachment relationships with physical activity motivation. Potential mediators of this link were examined in a cross-sectional study targeting college student physical activity motivation and behaviour. Participants completed self-reports of attachment relationships (with mother, father and best friend), self-determined motivation for physical activity, physical activity behaviour and the hypothesised mediator variables of perceived competence, autonomy and relatedness. The results provide support for the mediating role of these variables in the association of father attachment with self-determined motivation. Meaningful variance in self-determined motivation for physical activity and physical activity behaviour was explained. Overall, attachment relationships appear to be relevant, albeit modestly, to physical activity motivation of college students. The findings support continued efforts to integrate attachment and motivational perspectives in the study of college student health behaviour.     

The relationship between aging expectations and various modes of physical activity among aging adults

ObjectivePrevious research has indicated that older adults who expect decline and disease with age are less likely to engage in aerobic exercise. This study explores the influence that different types of aging expectations have on various modes of physical activity (PA) among aging adults.Design & methodsCommunity-dwelling adults aged 41–97 years (M = 70.8, SD = 12.8, n = 247) completed a questionnaire including the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly, the Expectations Regarding Aging (ERA) Survey, and a number of demographic, socio-economic, and medical covariates.ResultsBivariate analyses revealed significant relationships between overall ERA scores and multiple modes of PA, but not at multivariate levels. Bivariate analyses of the ERA sub-scales revealed significant associations among PA and the physical health ERA sub-scale but not mental health or cognitive function ERA sub-scales. In the multivariate analyses, higher physical health ERA was correlated with strenuous sport and recreational physical activities after adjusting for all covariates among aging adults without restrictions of daily activity (OR = 1.01, CI = 1.00–1.02, n = 194).ConclusionsThe association between aging expectations and PA appears to be dependent on the type of aging expectation (i.e., physical health), the mode or intensity of PA, and the functional abilities of the aging adult.     

Parent–Adolescent Attachment and Academic Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Self-Worth

Within the theoretical framework of attachment theory, this study examined associations between adolescents’ attachment relationships with both mother and father and their academic adjustment, and explored the potential mediation role of self-worth in the associations. Participants were 384 Chinese adolescents (49.6% male, average age?=?15.13 years) from public schools in Shanghai, China. They completed self-report measures of mother–adolescent attachment, father–adolescent attachment, general self-worth, academic engagement and school grades. The results indicated that adolescents’ attachments to both parents were associated with higher levels of academic engagement. There was partial support of the mediating role of self-worth, as adolescents who had high levels of parent–adolescent attachment were more likely to have high levels of self-worth, which in turn enhanced their academic engagement and then improved high school grades. The findings highlighted the importance of parental attachment-based intervention strategies to promote and maintain academic adjustment among adolescents.     

The relationship between physical appearance concerns,disgust, and anti-fat prejudice

This study examined relationships between physical appearance concerns (fear of fat, body image disturbance; BIDQ), disgust, and anti-fat prejudice (dislike, blame), and tested whether disgust mediates relationships between physical appearance concerns and anti-fat prejudice. Participants (N = 1649; age = 28 years) provided demographic data and completed measures of anti-fat prejudice, tendency to feel disgust, and physical appearance concerns. Univariate, multivariate, and mediation analyses were conducted. Univariate and multivariate associations were found between fear of fat, BIDQ, disgust, and anti-fat prejudice for women. For women only, mediation analyses showed that disgust partially mediated relationships between physical appearance concerns and dislike of fat people. For men, univariate and multivariate relationships were found between fear of fat, and dislike and blame of fat people, but disgust was not related to anti-fat prejudice. Newer constructs centering on physical appearance concerns and disgust appear promising candidates for understanding anti-fat prejudice.     

Using motivation regulations in a person-centered approach to examine the link between social physique anxiety in physical education and physical activity-related outcomes in adolescents

ObjectivesThis study explored how social physique anxiety (SPA) combined with different patterns of motivation regulations might facilitate versus deter effort and enjoyment in physical education (PE) and leisure-time physical activity.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodsHigh school students (N = 298; M_age = 15.72, SD_age = 1.24 years) completed an in-class survey including SPA in PE, motivation regulations for PE, enjoyment and effort in PE and leisure-time physical activity.ResultsFour profiles of students were identified in cluster analysis based on autonomous motivation, introjected regulation, external regulation and SPA. Profile one (“high diverse motivation”; n = 84) reflected relatively high motivation across all regulations and average SPA. Profile two (“moderate autonomous motivation”; n = 92) included those with average scores on autonomous motivation and relatively low scores on introjected and external regulation and SPA. Profile three (“moderate diverse motivation and anxious”; n = 59) had relatively high SPA combined with average motivation regulations. Profile four (“externally controlled and anxious”; n = 63) also had relatively high SPA but relatively low autonomous motivation and introjected regulation and relatively high external regulation. MANOVA results showed that “externally controlled and anxious” students reported the lowest physical activity behavior and enjoyment in PE. Conversely, the “moderate diverse motivation and anxious” students have physical activity experiences that do not differ from the two profiles that exhibited lower SPA.ConclusionsHigher feelings of SPA in PE appear linked with lower levels of enjoyment and effort in PE and leisure-time physical activity outside of school only when coupled with higher external regulation. This finding helps explain inconsistent associations between SPA and physical activity outcomes.     

Boredom,motivation, and perceptions of pain: Mechanisms to explain the effects of self-control exertion on subsequent physical performance

ObjectivesPrior self-control exertion has been shown to have a detrimental effect on subsequent physical performance. However, some potential underpinning mechanisms of the effect have yet to be examined. The present study explored whether exerting self-control reduces subsequent physical performance; and also examines the role of boredom, motivation, perceptions of pain, and sustained attention as mechanisms to explain these performance effects.MethodsIn a within-subjects order-balanced crossover design, 63 participants completed a self-control exertion task (incongruent Stroop) and non-self-control exertion task (congruent Stroop) for 4 min. Immediately after, participants completed a wall-sit task until volitional exhaustion. Task-specific boredom was measured following the Stroop task and following the wall-sit task. Participants’ perceptions of pain and motivation were measured every 30 s during the wall sit task. Upon completion of the wall-sit, participants completed a test of sustained attention.ResultsFollowing the self-control exertion task, participant’s wall-sit performance time was reduced (136 ± 62 s), compared to when they completed the non-self-control exertion task (144 ± 57 s, p = 0.05, d = 0.14). Participant’s task related boredom was significantly higher during the non-self-control exertion task (4.30 ± 1.23), compared to the self-control exertion task (3.82 ± 1.22) (p < 0.001, d = 0.39); but boredom was not different during the wall-sit task (p = 0.79). Prior self-control exertion also led to increased overall perceptions of pain (p = 0.02) and reduced overall (p = 0.01) and initial (p = 0.02) motivation during the wall-sit task. However, no differences in initial perceptions of pain (p = 0.16) or sustained attention (response time, p = 0.99; response accuracy, p = 0.78) were observed. Additional within-subjects mediation analysis revealed that differences in wall-sit performance time could not be explained by differences in task related boredom during the Stroop task, overall perceptions of pain, or overall and initial motivation (all p > 0.05).ConclusionsThe prior exertion of self-control resulted in a decrement in subsequent physical performance. Furthermore, individuals’ perceptions of task related boredom were higher during the non-self-control exertion (congruent Stroop) task, whilst overall perceptions of pain were higher, and initial and overall motivation were lower, following the self-control exertion (incongruent Stroop) task. However, mediation analysis revealed that these mechanisms did not explain the difference in wall sit performance time between the conditions.