Perceived inclusion in youth soccer teams: The role of societal status and perceived motivational goal climate

ObjectivesOur aim was to investigate the link between youth soccer players' perceptions of the coach-initiated motivational goal climate within their team and their perceptions of inclusion as a function of societal status. Societal status refers to one's national background which numerically forms the majority or a minority in a particular society.Design and methodsSurvey data was collected among 245 male youth soccer players (M = 12.9 years, SD = 1.60), who all played in culturally diverse teams in the Netherlands. The societal status of 94 players (38.4%) was majority, and 151 players (61.6%) were classified as minority. To test our main hypothesis, perceived inclusion as the dependent variable was hierarchically regressed on coach-initiated mastery goal climate perceptions, performance goal climate perceptions, societal status, and their interactions.ResultsOverall, mastery goal perceptions and performance goal perceptions of intra-team competition were positively and negatively related, respectively, to perceived team inclusion. As hypothesized, only among players with a societal minority status, perceptions of inclusion were higher when mastery goal climate perceptions were higher and performance goal climate perceptions were lower.Discussion and conclusionOur findings suggest that a coach-initiated mastery-oriented team climate may enhance an inclusive soccer environment in culturally and nationally diverse teams. For societal minority players, intra-team competition should be de-emphasized by the coach in order to strengthen the experience of inclusion.     

Expertise in soccer teams: A thematic inquiry into the role of Shared Mental Models within team chemistry

AimsThe purpose of the current study was to establish a conceptual framework of team chemistry components in sport with an emphasis on Shared Mental Models (SMM).MethodElite soccer coaches (n = 6) and players (n = 3) were interviewed using a semi-structured interview guide. An inductive thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data.ResultsFour themes related to team chemistry components were identified: (1) members' characteristics (i.e., demographic data, on-field characteristics, and member's ego), (2) coach–players interactions (i.e., professional interaction and emotional intelligence of coaches), (3) interactions among the players (i.e., professional understanding, efficacy beliefs, team cohesion, players' emotional intelligence, team roles, and goals), and (4) interactions with environmental factors (i.e., owners, management, fans, and media).ConclusionsThe cognitive components of the team chemistry model were clustered to establish a conceptual framework of SMM. Furthermore, the cognitive-affective-social-behavioral linkage of team chemistry and athletic performance is examined in light of the emerged model and conceptual framework. Implications and future directions are also discussed.     

Doing it for the team: Soccer coaches' identity leadership predicts players' effort,turnover intentions,and performance

ObjectivesThe present research investigates how coaches' identity leadership predicts individual and team outcomes in soccer. Specifically, we tested hypotheses that coaches' identity leadership would be associated with players' perceptions of (a) higher team effort, (b) lower turnover intentions, (c) better individual performance, and (d) better team performance. In addition, we aimed to examine the relationship between coaches' identity leadership and increased team identification of players and the degree to which the associations of identity leadership with these various outcomes were mediated by players' strength of team identification.DesignWe conducted a cross-sectional study of male soccer players in Germany.MethodThe final sample consisted of 247 male soccer players nested in 24 teams that completed measures of their coaches' identity leadership, team identification, team effort, turnover intentions, and individual/team performance.ResultsAnalysis revealed a positive relationship between coaches' identity leadership and team effort, as well as individual and team performance. Moreover, coaches' identity leadership was associated with lower turnover intentions. There was also evidence that the relationships between identity leadership and the investigated outcomes were mediated by team identification.ConclusionsThese findings support claims that coaches' identity leadership is associated with better individual and team outcomes because it helps to build a sense of ‘we’ and ‘us’ in the team they lead.     

Examining the reliability and predictive validity of performance assessments by soccer coaches and scouts: The influence of structured collection and mechanical combination of information

Soccer coaches and scouts typically assess in-game soccer performance to predict players’ future performance. However, there is hardly any research on the reliability and predictive validity of coaches’ and scouts’ performance assessments, or on strategies they can use to optimize their predictions. In the current study, we examined whether robust principles from psychological research on selection – namely structured information collection and mechanical combination of predictor information through a decision-rule – improve soccer coaches’ and scouts’ performance assessments. A total of n = 96 soccer coaches and scouts participated in an elaborate within-subjects experiment. Participants watched soccer players’ performance on video, rated their performance in both a structured and unstructured manner, and combined their ratings in a holistic and mechanical way. We examined the inter-rater reliability of the ratings and assessed the predictive validity by relating the ratings to players’ future market values. Contrary to our expectations, we did not find that ratings based on structured assessment paired with mechanical combination of the ratings showed higher inter-rater reliability and predictive validity. In contrast, unstructured-holistic ratings yielded the highest reliability and predictive validity, although differences were marginal. Overall, reliability was poor and predictive validities small-to-moderate, regardless of the approach used to rate players’ performance. The findings provide insights into the difficulty of predicting future performance in soccer.     

A holistic perspective on career development in UK female soccer players: A negative case analysis

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine career experiences of UK-based female youth soccer players from a holistic perspective with a view to producing a grounded theory of factors contributing to career/talent development and transitions in UK youth female soccer.MethodologyA Grounded Theory methodology (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) was used. Negative case (Denzin, 1989) former female soccer players (N = 13), their best friend (N = 13), soccer coaches (N = 4), and teachers (N = 8) took part in semi-structured interviews about factors associated with talent development and career transitions in female youth soccer.ResultsMultiple social agents (players, team-mates, peers, teachers, parents and siblings) need to optimally interact to ensure that an optimal talent development and learning environment is created. This will provide a supportive holistic talent development environment, lead to adaptive player-level changes, and a greater chance of successful athletic and dual career development.ConclusionsThis study presents a rich understanding of the dual careers of players who did not make it in female soccer. By considering their perspectives alongside of a range of important social agents, we have been able to construct a substantive grounded theory of factors contributing to career/talent development and transitions in UK youth female soccer. As a result, these findings may contribute to policy and practice development in UK female youth soccer.     

Social and motivational predictors of continued youth sport participation

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine if youth soccer players' perceived relationships with parents and peers in soccer, and the moderating associations among these social relationship variables, predict soccer continuation over and above motivation-related variables.DesignThis study used a prospective design by assessing youth soccer athletes' social relationships and motivational outcomes during one season and tracking the athletes' soccer continuation behavior one year later.MethodsContinuation behavior of travel soccer athletes (N = 148), ages 10–14 years (M = 11.7, SD = 1.0), was assessed one year after completing a questionnaire containing soccer-contextualized measures of perceived parent relationship quality, perceived friendship quality, perceived peer acceptance, perceived competence, enjoyment, stress, and self-determined motivation.ResultsLogistic regression analyses showed that greater perceived competence, more positive friendship quality, and the combination of mother relationship quality and peer relationships predict soccer continuation on the same team.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the importance of close social relationships, and the combination of parent and peer relationships in particular, to sport continuation behavior.     

3D-Multiple Object Tracking training task improves passing decision-making accuracy in soccer players

ObjectivesThe ability to perform a context-free 3-dimensional multiple object tracking (3D-MOT) task has been highly related to athletic performance. In the present study, we assessed the transferability of a perceptual-cognitive 3D-MOT training from a laboratory setting to a soccer field, a sport in which the capacity to correctly read the dynamic visual scene is a prerequisite to performance.DesignThroughout pre- and post-training sessions, we looked at three essential skills (passing, dribbling, shooting) that are used to gain the upper hand over the opponent.MethodWe recorded decision-making accuracy during small-sided games in university-level soccer players (n = 23) before and after a training protocol. Experimental (n = 9) and active control (n = 7) groups were respectively trained during 10 sessions of 3D-MOT or 3D soccer videos. A passive control group (n = 7) did not received any particular training or instructions.ResultsDecision-making accuracy in passing, but not in dribbling and shooting, between pre- and post-sessions was superior for the 3D-MOT trained group compared to control groups. This result was correlated with the players' subjective decision-making accuracy, rated after pre- and post-sessions through a visual analogue scale questionnaire.ConclusionsTo our knowledge, this study represents the first evidence in which a non-contextual, perceptual-cognitive training exercise has a transfer effect onto the field in athletes.     

Perceptual-cognitive performance of youth soccer players in a 360°-environment – Differences between age groups and performance levels

IntroductionAn important requirement for soccer players is the accurate and rapid processing of dynamic and complex visual scenes. Therefore, in high-level youth soccer the players’ perceptual-cognitive skills are highly relevant from a scientific and practical point of view. The aim of the present study was to investigate differences in perceptual-cognitive performance between youth soccer players of different age groups and soccer performance levels in a dynamic 360°-environment.MethodsIn a sample of 292 elite and sub-elite youth soccer players from the age groups U12–U23, perceptual-cognitive skills were assessed using a 360°-multiple object tracking task. An 8 × 2 (age group x performance level) analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of age group and soccer performance level on performance in the task.ResultsThe analyses revealed a significant main effect of age group. Post hoc analyses showed that youth players belonging to the older age groups (U16, U17, U19, and U23) performed significantly better in the 360°-multiple object tracking task than players of the youngest age group (U12). Yet no significant age-related differences could be found from age group U16 on. Furthermore, there was a significant effect of soccer performance level on the 360°-multiple object tracking performance in favor of the elite players. Significant differences between elite and sub-elite players within the same age group were only present in the highest age groups U19 and U23.ConclusionsThe results suggest that in a dynamic 360°-environment highly talented youth soccer players show better perceptual-cognitive performance with increasing age. Furthermore, elite youth players exhibit distinctive perceptual-cognitive abilities particularly at the highest age groups. These findings provide interesting implications for science and practice regarding the perceptual-cognitive skills of talented soccer players and their role in talent development.     

How many creatives are enough? Exploring how manipulating the number of creative players in the opposing team impacts footballers' performance during small-sided games

This study explored how varying the number of creative opponents affects youth players' performance during football small-sided games (SSGs). Initially, 60 players from 3 different age groups with n = 20 in each (under-9, U9; under-11, U11; and under-13, U13) were tested during SSGs to rank them according to their creative potential. Based on these rankings, four players shown to possess with a medium creative potential were assigned to the intermediate team for each age group. This team competed against a team on which players with high creative potential were progressively included (from one to finally all four players, 1C to 4C) during a 4-a-side plus goalkeeper SSG. The results showed that U9 players increased the individual space explored when facing more creative opponents (p = .012), while the U11 (p = .026) and U13 (p < .001) only increased when facing 2C and 3C. Playing against more creative opponents induced more variability in the distance to own (p = .046) and the opponent team's centroid (p = .046) in the U9, regularity in the U11 (team centroid, p < .001; opponents' centroid, p = .001) and lower regularity in the U13 (team centroid, p = .013 opponents' centroid, p = .009). These distinct movement patterns seemed to reflect the differences in players' perceptual and motor skills. A higher creative score was found against 1C (vs 2C and 4C, p = .006) and 3C (vs 4C, p = .006) in the U9. The results from the effect sizes indicated higher values on the players' attempts, fluency and versatility when facing 1C to 3C, whereas a clear decrease was observed against 4C for all age groups. Hence, moderate and high demanding scenarios prompt the emergence of new behaviours while extremely high demanding scenarios (i.e. 4C) seem to constrain all the creativity components. Overall, adding creative players mostly impacts the team's collective behaviour rather than the players' creativity-related skills.     

“Get it out the way. The wait's killing me.” hastening and hiding during soccer penalty kicks

ObjectivesIt has been suggested that hastening and hiding—rushing through penalty preparation and not looking at the goal when preparing the penalty kick—are associated with negative penalty taking performance. In the present study, we investigated how opposing players perceived these nonverbal behaviors, how they affect outcome expectations, and how they affect the behavior of opposing goalkeepers.DesignThe present study employs an experimental research design (Experiment 1: 2 (gaze behavior) × 3 (preparation time) design; Experiment 2: 2 (gaze behavior) × 2 (preparation time) design).MethodWe examined the perception of nonverbal hastening and hiding behavior using the point-light technique during the soccer penalty kick among goalkeepers (Experiment 1a; n = 20), and among outfield soccer players (Experiment 1b; n = 29). Furthermore, we analyzed how these respective penalty preparation strategies influenced the behavior of high-level goalkeepers (n = 12) under in situ conditions (Experiment 2).ResultsThe results from Experiment 1 demonstrated that penalty takers showing hastening and hiding behaviors are perceived more negatively by both soccer goalkeepers and outfield players: (i) they are considered to possess less positive attributes, (ii) to have less accuracy in their penalties, and (iii) likely to perform less well in penalty situations. Experiment 2 provided first evidence that goalkeepers initiate their movement later following the observation of hastening and hiding behaviors during the penalty preparation.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate the importance of investigating nonverbal behavior in sports as these have a major impact on impression formation, expected performance, and actual behavior of opposing players in the soccer penalty situation.     

Short-term effect of competition rule changes on collective effectiveness and self-efficacy in youth football players

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to assess the short effect of the modification of the players' number, field size, and goal size on the levels of physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy in male youth football players.DesignA quasi-experimental study of type A-B-A (three tournaments) was implemented to measure the effect of rule changes on the player's self-efficacy. The independent variable of the study was the competition format: official rules of the Royal Spanish Football Federation for U-12 vs. modified rules (size of the playing field (58 × 38 m. vs. 38 × 20 m); number of players per team on the field (8-a-side vs. 5-a-side); and goal size (6 × 2 m. vs. 3 × 2 m.). The dependent variables were physical self-efficacy, football-specific self-efficacy, and collective self-efficacy. The technical tactical players' actions of clearances, passes, and shots were measured as cofounding variables to assess the implication of the modification of the rules on the game.MethodThe sample analyzed was made up of four U-12 male football teams (n = 48), which played a total of 24 matches in three tournaments. In tournaments one and three, teams played with the official 8v8 football rules. In tournament two, teams played with the modified rules.ResultsThere was a significant increase in the football-specific self-efficacy at the third tournament. The experimental rules did not change players' general physical self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. The experimental rules involved the realization of more defensive actions (clearances) and offensive actions (passes and shots) by players. The results showed that both competition rules involved similar values of self-efficacy.ConclusionsThese results show that the short-effect of participation in modified competitions maintains the values of football-specific self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy. Future studies should consider the interaction of self-efficacy with other psychological variables, such as self-esteem, cooperation motivation, etc., and other aspects of the game, such as technic-tactical, physiological, health, etc.     

Motivational climate,psychological needs,and personal and social responsibility in youth soccer: Comparisons by age group and competitive level

ObjectivesWe used a developmental lens to examine age group and competitive level differences on motivational climate dimensions, psychological needs satisfaction, and personal and social responsibility as well as relationships among variables, in line with basic psychological needs theory.DesignWe used a cross-sectional, correlational design.MethodGirls and boys age 8–13 on recreational and select soccer teams completed a survey.ResultsA 2 × 2 MANOVA showed main effects for age group and competitive level: early adolescents reported greater punishment for mistakes and autonomy compared to children; select players reported greater mastery climate dimensions and personal responsibility compared to recreational players. For all groups, path analyses revealed perceptions of cooperative learning were indirectly associated with personal and social responsibility, through coach and/or teammate relatedness.ConclusionsPatterns of relationships by age group and competitive level are discussed in reference to developmental literature. Results highlight the value of using a developmental approach to understand how coaches can promote youth soccer players’ psychological and social well-being.     

Attributional style and athletic performance: Strategic optimism and defensive pessimism

ObjectivesTwo studies examined the relationship between explanatory style measured with the Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), Peterson, Semmel, von Baeyer, Abramson, Metalsky, and Seligman (1982. The Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 287–299) and athletic performance.DesignCorrelational designs were used to examine relationships between the predictor variables of attributional style and dispositional optimism and the criterion variable of athletic performance. Study one also examined the effect of soccer match outcome as a moderational factor.MethodFor study 1, 20 male soccer players completed the ASQ and their performance across eight matches was videotaped and coded on a variety of measures (goals, fouls, attempted passes, completed passes). For study 2, 18 female basketball players completed both the ASQ and the Life Orientation Test (LOT), Scheier and Carver (1978. Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4, 219–247). Relationships between these scales and a variety of performance measures were examined.ResultsConsistent with findings from Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Thornton, N., and Thornton, K. (1990. Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143–146), a significant positive relationship was found between the ASQ measure of optimism and athletic performance among the soccer players in study 1. In addition, optimistic soccer players demonstrated better performance during a loss than did pessimists, whereas no significant performance differences were found between these two groups during a subsequent win. Findings from study 2 were less consistent, revealing both positive (optimists had more assists and steals) and negative (optimists had fewer rebounds and more fouls) relationships. A subsequent content analysis of the open-ended responses on the ASQ suggests that the observed negative relationships were a function of these female athletes attributing negative outcomes to lack of effort (defensive pessimism) as opposed to lack of ability (depressive pessimism).ConclusionsThe findings highlight the need to differentiate between these two forms of pessimism and their differential impact on performance. The importance of including an assessment of perceived controllability as an attributional dimension in future research is discussed.     

Determinants of competitive performance expectancies of young male athletes1

Although performance expectancies have been shown to be important mediators of achievement behavior, few specific determinants of personal expectancies have been identified, the ecological validity of previous results is limited, and factors influencing group performance expectancies have not been determined. Therefore, the purpose of this field study involving 11- and 12-year-old male soccer players was twofold. First, we examined specific intrapersonal and situational factors influencing players' pregame personal and team performance expectancies. Second, we investigated the effects of winning and losing a competitive soccer game on players' postgame team expectancies involving a hypothetical rematch with the identical opponent. The pregame findings revealed that (a) the intrapersonal factors of ability and self-esteem were related to personal performance expectancies while competitive trait anxiety was not, and (b) the situational factors of past win-loss record and a prior game win or loss against the same opponent influenced team performance expectancies. The postgame findings revealed that future expectancies were affected by the interactive effects of game win-loss and self-esteem.     

The two roads from passion to sport performance and psychological well-being: The mediating role of need satisfaction,deliberate practice,and achievement goals

ObjectivesResearch on passion has demonstrated the existence of two roads toward sports performance through the effects of deliberate practice (Vallerand et al., 2007, 2008). The first emanates from harmonious passion (HP) and contributes to both performance and psychological well-being. The second stems from obsessive passion (OP), and performance comes at the cost of well-being. The present research proposes that need satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2000) mediates the relation of HP, but not OP, with both outcomes. In Study 2, achievement goals were added to the model. Mastery goals were expected to mediate the positive relation between HP and outcomes, whereas performance-avoidance goals would be associated with OP and, thus be detrimental to athletes.DesignTwo studies using correlational (Study 1) and longitudinal (Study 2) designs.MethodStudy 1 (N = 172) was conducted with soccer players. Study 2 was conducted with hockey players (N = 598). Athletes completed measures of passion, need satisfaction, life satisfaction, deliberate practice, and achievement goals (Study 2 only). Coaches assessed performance in Study 1. Study 2 used games played in competitive leagues over 15 years to measure performance.ResultsAnalyses using SEM provided support for the mediating role of need satisfaction (Study 1 and 2) and achievement goals (Study 2) in the relation of HP with outcomes. In contrast, deliberate practice (Study 1 and 2) meditated the relation between OP and performance.ConclusionsThis research supported the mediating role of need satisfaction in the ‘two roads to performance” (Vallerand et al., 2007, 2008).     

The influence of an esports-adapted coping effectiveness training (E-CET) on resilience,mental health,and subjective performance among elite league of Legends players: A pilot study

ObjectiveThis study aimed to develop, and pilot esports-adapted coping effectiveness training (E-CET) and measure its influence on coping effectiveness (global and specific), subjective performance, mental health (psychological distress and wellbeing), and resilience.DesignFive elite male League of Legends players competing in the League of Legends Circuit Oceania participated in a mixed methods research design. The effects of E-CET were measured using a within-subjects quasi-experimental design (i.e., pre-to-post, no control group). To measure the effects of E-CET on specific stressors, a longitudinal diary design was used.MethodPlayers participated in a 2-h session of E-CET and a 45-min follow-up workshop. The 2-h workshop delivered content on two conceptual areas: (1) developing awareness of the stress and coping process; and (2) how to cope with stress. Players completed pre-intervention, post-intervention, and follow-up measures and twice-weekly stress journals.ResultsE-CET led to increases in players' perceived coping effectiveness and subjective performance, but there were no changes in psychological distress, psychological wellbeing, and resilience. However, the results indicate some positive signs for future coping interventions with League of Legends players and iterations of E-CET.ConclusionThe E-CET program appears to provide an opportunity to improve performance and mental health for esports players.     

Stereotype endorsement and perceived ability as mediators of the girls' gender orientation–soccer performance relationship

ObjectiveThis study investigated girls' endorsement of the stereotype that girls are not good soccer performers through three questions: (1) did stereotype endorsement predict soccer performance? (2) Was this relationship mediated by perceived ability? (3) Was stereotype endorsement related to gender role orientation?MethodOne hundred and two junior high school girls from the 6th to the 9th grade (M age = 13.5 years, SD = 1.23) reported their beliefs about girls' and boys' performance in soccer, perceived ability and gender role orientation. Next, their soccer performance was observed during matches in compulsory physical education classes. A path-analytic model tested the relationships among the variables using a product-moment correlation matrix and a maximum likelihood estimation procedure.ResultsStereotype endorsement (i.e., the belief that girls' performance in soccer is poor) negatively predicted performance, this relationship being mediated by perceived ability. Moreover, masculinity positively predicted perceived ability, and this relationship was partially mediated by stereotype endorsement.ConclusionThis study reinforces the idea that girls' sports performance may be related to gender stereotypes. Interpretations of the results in light of Eccles et al.’s expectancy-value model and stereotype threat theory are discussed, along with implications for practice.     

Does decision making transfer across similar and dissimilar sports?

ObjectivesThe ability to make decisions under time pressure is crucial to performance in sport. However, there remains a paucity of research that examines whether the skills underpinning decision-making transfer across similar or dissimilar sports. We examine whether decision making transfers from soccer to other sports that may be deemed to be either similar (basketball) or dissimilar (tennis) based on sports taxonomy.MethodsSkilled soccer players (N = 20) completed a video-based temporal occlusion test designed to measure decision-making involving offensive sequences of play from soccer, basketball, and tennis. Participants were required to decide on an appropriate action to execute for each situation presented.ResultsResponse accuracy was higher in the soccer decision-making task compared to the basketball and tennis tasks. Furthermore, accuracy scores were higher on the basketball compared to the tennis task.ConclusionsThere appears to be some positive transfer of decision-making between sports that share similar elements, supporting the importance both of specificity and generality in expert performance.     

When mistakes affecting one’s own group result in compensation: Evidence of a compensatory own goal effect

ObjectivesAlthough sports team members often value their teams highly, they sometimes make mistakes and thereby unintentionally put their teams at a disadvantage. Thus, they should be motivated to compensate for their mistake to resolve this discrepancy. To test this hypothesis, we studied whether professional soccer players compensate for their own goals by scoring regular goals in the same game (Study 1) and possible processes underlying such compensation efforts (Study 2).DesignIn Study 1, we compared how frequently prior own goal scorers scored a regular goal in the same game to (a) their expected goal scoring frequencies and (b) their probabilities to score a regular goal following a regular goal by the opposing team. In Study 2, we investigated four possible processes underlying the expected compensatory efforts.MethodWe analyzed all own goals from the first fifty years of the German Bundesliga (N = 889) and possible ensuing regular goals by the own goal scorer. Moreover, we surveyed amateur soccer players about four motives: group performance, individual performance, individual public image, and group public image.ResultsFollowing their own goals, professional soccer players are particularly likely to score regular goals in the same game (i.e., a compensatory own goal effect). Presumably, they primarily do so to secure a good group performance, but the other motives also play a role.ConclusionsGroup members who make highly visible mistakes are motivated to compensate for the disadvantage they caused. Presumably, they mainly do so to secure a good team performance.