Wanting It All: Career, Marriage, and Motherhood During College-Educated Women's 20s

College women's expectations for career, marriage, and motherhood were assessed during the senior year, and their outcomes were assessed 7 years later. In 1993, 118 White women and 82 Women of Color were randomly selected from 5 northeastern colleges and interviewed in person. In 2000, 178 (89%) were reached for second interviews by telephone. Results indicate that as seniors the women wanted careers, marriage, and motherhood. Career development was the priority of their 20s. At the 7-year point, marital status was unrelated to advanced degrees attained or to career status, but mothers had significantly fewer advanced degrees and lower career status than nonmothers. Socioeconomic status, race, and intentions concerning career and family were related to career status and motherhood status.     

Career or marriage?: Aspirations and achievements of able young women

Women who won National Merit Scholarships during the years 1956–1960 were followed up in 1965 to determine their marriage and/or career plans. Each of the 883 women was classified into one of five groups: marriage only, marriage with deferred career, marriage with immediate career, career only, or uncertain. Altogether, 85% of them said that they definitely planned on having a career. The educational and career field aspirations of these groups differed considerably, however, and those seeking an immediate career scored higher on scholastic ability tests than those who either planned no career or who planned to delay entering them. The groups also differed in their expression of problems encountered in making and implementing their plans as well as problems experienced because of being a woman.     

Relationships of achievement motivation and sex-role identity to college women's career orientation

Two career orientation factors, Career Centeredness and Career Commitment, were predicted to relate differentially to women's achievement motivation and sex-role identity. Career Centeredness is an orientation which places a career above other life activities (e.g., recreation, family life, etc.) as a source of satisfaction whereas Career Commitment concerns the intention of steadily pursuing a career throughout life. The expectation that Career Centeredness would be more characteristic of masculine women and correlate higher with achievement motivation than would Career Commitment was generally supported. Results are discussed in terms of societal support for these two career orientations and of role conflict experienced by women with different sex-role identities.     

Factors Impacting on Career Choices of Technikon Students From Previously Disadvantaged High Schools

Career development is a socially constructed process involving complex interactions among different structures, forces, and systems all constituting spheres of influence. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence career decisions. Eighty respondents (40 males and 40 females with mean age of 22 years) participated in the study. Results revealed that family variables of parental high expectations of children and appropriate communications within the family, as well as factors such as prestige statuses of some occupations, school curricular subjects, academic performance, teacher influences, and peer pressure had strong positive influences on career choices. Barriers to career choices identified included finance, lack of appropriate information, poor academic performance, and unsatisfactory career counseling services. Results suggest need for a better approach to career education in schools and counseling services that are adaptive to social, economic, and cultural contexts.     

Intervention for Multipotentiality: Effects of a Career Counseling Laboratory for Gifted High School Students

Career counseling effectively enhanced high school students' desire to engage in discussion about their career development with counselors, parents, and peers. They also were somewhat more likely to plan to go to college. A total of 59% changed or confirmed their career plans.     

Women, Career Orientation, and Employment

This study examines age and life-cycle stage variance in women's career orientation (i.e., intention to pursue a career) and in the expression of career orientation through employment. The study group is a cross-sectional, non-probability sample of 1, 120 women, ages 22–64, who contacted a major mid-western university's Center for Continuing Education of Women. Three findings predominate: (1) Career orientation is negatively related to age, reflecting greater career interest among younger women. (2) In all marital and parental status categories, high proportions of young women are career oriented, suggesting that career interest persists through the periods of family formation and expansion. (3) The greatest discrepancy between career orientation and rate of full-time employment occurs among married mothers of preschool children, suggesting that career plans are deferred during early motherhood. Discussion focuses on the implications of the findings for work and family policy and further research.     

Who Are the Next Generation of Genetic Counselors? A Survey of Students

Genetic counseling students were surveyed about their backgrounds, application process to genetic counseling programs, and career motivations and plans. Program directors from 27 accredited programs were asked to distribute 362 surveys to students. Fifty-two survey items assess demographics; sources of support for pursuing a genetic counseling career (information about genetic counseling, encouragement/discouragement from others); career motivations (reasons for applying and for becoming a genetic counselor); and career certainty. Two hundred and thirty-five usable surveys were returned (64.9% usable return rate). Most respondents were Caucasian females (mean age = 25.4 years). About 13% identified as ethnic minorities, and about one-third reported family histories of a genetic condition(s). Most respondents learned about the field in classes, and most were strongly encouraged by family and friends to pursue genetic counseling. Reasons rated as most important for becoming a genetic counselor included helping others and intellectual stimulation. Recruitment, training, and research recommendations are given.     

CAREER SELF-MANAGEMENT: A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF A TRAINING INTERVENTION

A growing trend is to encourage employees to become actively involved in the management of their own careers. Career self-management, the degree to which one regularly gathers information and plans for career problem solving and decision making, includes two main behaviors: developmental feedback seeking and job mobility preparedness. Although career self-management training is a commonly used employer intervention to re-socialize individuals to increase their own career management activity, it is rarely rigorously evaluated. Relying on an expectancy theory framework, the goal of this study was to evaluate the general effects of career self-management training using a quasi-experimental design. Based on data from several hundred professionals at a major U.S. employer, the results showed formal training efforts were generally not successful in resocializing people to engage in career self-management activities, and when done as an isolated human resource strategy, decreased trainees' likelihood of engaging in career self-management behaviors. To the extent that Time 2 expectancy perceptions got worse, the results showed that an individual's attitudes toward feedback seeking mediated the relationship between the training intervention and the level of preparation for job mobility conducted 6-8 months following the training.     

Eleven-year career stability and change as reflected in Project Talent data through the Flanagan,Holland, and Roe occupational classification systems

The vocational psychologist seeks classifications of occupations which maximize career stability as occupations change from time to time in the life. This study investigates the extent of career stability and the patterns of career change which have occurred in the lives of Project TALENT twelfth grade students in the 11 yr elapsing since they were tested. “Career” plans in the last year of high school and at 1, 5, and 11 yr after testing were classified by the Flanagan, Holland, and Roe occupational classification systems in order to study the career stability and patterning within each system and to contrast both among systems. Career stability proved to be about the same in all three classification systems but decreased in all cases as the interval over which it was measured increased. Career stability increased as subjects grew older, proving to be the greatest from 5 to 11 yr after high school. Patterns of change mildly conformed to the circular patterns claimed by Holland and Roe for their systems and the linear pattern hypothesized for the Flanagan system. Generally, the direction of “career” flow was away from intellectual careers to careers in business and sales but each system had unique results as well.     

Career Development From Adolescence Through Emerging Adulthood Insights From Information Technology Occupations

Career development theories suggest that social-contextual experiences are influential in individuals' career interests, aspirations, and skill development and may be a source of gender and ethnic differences in certain career fields. In this mixed methods study, we examine the supportive and obstructive career-related experiences of 13 men and 13 women (modal age 25). Interviews focused primarily on the pathway toward or away from an information technology (IT) career. Thematic coding indicated that parents were mostly supportive, while experiences in school and work occasionally made individuals reconsider their career plans. Social influences often changed developmentally as participants entered full-time jobs. Gendered participation in IT was often attributed to women's perception that it is a male-oriented field.     

The role of career adaptability in predicting entrepreneurial intentions: A moderated mediation model

Guided by the Career Construction Theory (Savickas, 2013), we view entrepreneurship as an adaptive vocational behavior driven by an individual's self-regulatory capacity to thrive in a complex entrepreneurial career context. Our research model posited that individuals rely on their adaptive resources and entrepreneurial self-efficacy as they form entrepreneurial intentions. Career adaptability, as self-regulatory competencies, is further strengthened by prior exposure to family business. We collected data over three measurement periods from Serbian business students (n = 380) and validated the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS). The moderated mediation model was supported and as predicted: (a) career adaptability was positively associated with entrepreneurial intentions and (b) the mediated relationship between career adaptability and entrepreneurial intentions via entrepreneurial self-efficacy was stronger for individuals with prior exposure to family business. In addition, we provide evidence for the psychometric properties of CAAS by examining its internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and factor structure. Taken together, our study offers the groundwork for understanding successful adaptation in the entrepreneurial career context and supports the cross-national measurement equivalence and utility of CAAS in a developing economy.     

内隐自尊和风险偏好对大学生职业决策的影响

为研究影响大学生职业决策的影响因素和决策有效性,实验一、二分别从决策者心理特征（内隐自尊与风险偏好）和职业方案特征（框架效应与风险水平）入手,考察二者对大学生职业决策行为的影响。结果发现：内隐自尊和风险偏好的高低显著影响大学生择业倾向性;大学生对风险水平不同的职业方案的选择倾向由低到高依次为冒险、折中、保守方案;职业决策存在明显的框架效应。研究表明,大多数大学生倾向于选择保守的职业方案;高风险偏好的大学生倾向于选择冒险的职业方案;高内隐自尊大学生倾向于主动择业;积极表述的职业方案更受大学生所青睐。     

Young Adults' Attitudes toward Multiple Role Planning: The Influence of Gender, Career Traditionality, and Marriage Plans

This study examined personal and relationship influences on attitudes toward multiple role planning, specifically preparing to combine work and partnership roles. Survey data were collected from 66 young adult heterosexual couples. Results revealed that marriage plans related positively to knowledge and certainty about multiple role planning. Gender and career traditionality interacted with marriage plans in its influence on commitment to and involvement in multiple roles. Moreover, attitudes toward multiple role planning mediated the association between marriage plans and planning activity for work-family balance. Implications for research and application in multiple role planning are addressed.     

Male acceptance of female career roles

Forty-two male university students rated five written female role statements matched with video taped females on an 11-point probability of marriage scale. A significant main effect for work roles revealed the order of preference to be Immediate Nurturer, Delayed Nurturer, Homemaker, Integrator, and Career Primary — confirming the expected preference of these middle-class college males for women who combine traditional family goals with some degree of career involvement. There was also an interaction between work roles, female physical attractiveness, and male self-esteem, which revealed an inability of low self-esteem males to tolerate the very attractive career-oriented female.     

DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF CAREER PLANNING ON INTERNALS AND EXTERNALS

Career planning programs require participant effort to influence career progress. This study investigated the relationship of beliefs in internal vs. external locus of control of behavior (I/E) and self-reported activity four months after a one-day career planning workshop. Internally oriented secretaries took more actions to explore potential career goals and to identify means of attaining these goals. In addition, respondents to the follow-up questionnaire were more internally oriented than non-respondents. Implications for administration of career planning programs are listed.     

Career Goals of College Women and Men and Perceived Achievement-Related Encouragement

Encouragements and discouragements for achievement-related behavior were reported in an interview setting by three groups of college seniors: Career women (n = 20), career men (n = 20), and traditional women (n = 19). Career women reported significantly more encouragement from teachers, family members (except parents), and significant others of the opposite sex than did either career men or traditional women. Career women also reported more encouragement from counselors and friends, while career men reported more encouragement from parents; however, these differences were not significant. Career women reported a significantly higher grade point average than either of the other groups. Implications of the results for the achievement behavior of women and men are considered.     

Examining career persistence and career change intent using the career attitudes and strategies inventory

This is the first study to examine Holland and Gottfredson’s [Holland, J. L., & Gottfredson, G. D. (1994). Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory: An inventory for understanding adult careers. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.] assertion that the Career Attitudes and Strategies Inventory (CASI) is a useful instrument for differentiating career persisters and career changers. Based on Holland’s (1996; Holland and Gottfredson) [Holland, J. L. (1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions. American Psychologist, 51, 397-406.] expectations and empirical evidence it was hypothesized that persisters (expressed intent to remain in current career) would score higher than changers (expressed intent to change career) on the Job Satisfaction, Work Involvement, Skill Development, and Geographical Barriers scales comprising the CASI. Conversely, it was hypothesized that changers would score higher than persisters on the CASI scales measuring Dominant Style, Career Worries, Interpersonal Abuse, Family Commitment, and Risk-Taking Style. To test these hypotheses, 249 career persisters and 200 career changers completed the CASI. Results indicated that changers were more likely to take risks and were more motivated towards skill development, while persisters were more satisfied in their jobs and reported greater career concerns.     

Facets of career decision-making difficulties

The present research investigated the relations among the measured and the expressed career decision-making difficulties in a sample of 299 young adults who intended to apply to college or university. As hypothesised, the correlations between career decision-making difficulties, as measured by the Career Decision-Making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ), and the expressed difficulties were generally high (median = 0.64), but varied among the 10 difficulty categories (range 0.35-0.82). Both measured and expressed difficulties correlated negatively with the students' career decision-making self-efficacy (-0.63 and -0.65, respectively). The correlations between the CDDQ and both dimensions of the Vocational Decision Style Indicator were negative but low (-0.25 for the introvert vs. extrovert dimension and -0.35 for the thinking vs. feeling dimension). The correlations between the students' scholastic aptitude test scores and both measured and expressed difficulties were negligible (-0.03 and -0.08, respectively). Participants with more crystallised career plans reported lower career decision-making difficulties, higher career decision-making self-efficacy, and a higher 'thinking' (as opposed to 'feeling') vocational decision-making style. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The professional career on the right track: A study on the interaction between career self-management and organizational career management in explaining employee outcomes

This article explores the relationship between organizational career management and career self-management and addresses the impact on employee outcomes. Within six large organizations, a sample of 491 employees reported on their career self-management initiatives, on their expectations towards organizational career support, and on their commitment and career success. This was complemented by information from their supervisors on career management support offered by HR and line management to these employees. Results show that individuals who take more initiatives to manage their career expect more career support from their employer. Career self-management positively impacts affective commitment and perceived career success, while organizational career management is positively related with affective commitment and career progress. Career self-management moderates the relationship of organizational career management with affective commitment and subjective career success.     

Women's Liberation Among Two Samples of Young Women

Interviews conducted in 1970 and 1971 with women who were university students and women registered with the state department of employment indicated that compared to married women, single women who did not have direct experience in the traditional female role held opinions which tended to idealize that role orientation. In particular, inexperienced women as opposed to more knowledgeable women tended to see marriage and children as the most important life experience for a woman, to have lower career commitment (p <.05), to plan to alter their career plans significantly to accommodate children (p <.05), and to idealize the sexual relationship in a marriage (p <.003). Neither group of women revealed belief patterns strongly supportive of the women's liberation movement.