Validation of the Five-Factor Model Personality Disorder Prototype Counts with the Personality Assessment Inventory

Five-factor model (FFM) personality disorder (PD) prototype scores drawn from the revised NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) have demonstrated strong convergent validity with clinical measures of PD (Miller in Journal of Personality, 80, 1565–1591, 2012). However, an examination of the relations between the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey 1991), which is widely used in personality assessment research, and the FFM PD prototype “count” method, has not been conducted. The present study examines the convergent validity of the FFM borderline, antisocial, and psychopathy prototype counts with the Borderline Features (BOR) and Antisocial Features (ANT) full scales and subscales from the PAI. Furthermore, the BOR and ANT scales are correlated with all 30 NEO-PI-3 facets to empirically evaluate the rationally-selected facet scales used in the borderline, antisocial, and psychopathy PD counts. Five hundred thirty-five undergraduate students completed both the NEO-PI-3 and the PAI. The PD counts demonstrated strong convergent and discriminant validity with the PAI clinical scales. Facet-level analyses generally supported the structure of the PD count formulas, and the exceptions align with previous evidence that the Competence, Dutifulness, and Self-Discipline facets (from the Conscientiousness domain of the FFM) associate strongly with the BOR scale.     

Detection of Feigned Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Comparison of the MMPI-2 and PAI

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) and Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) were compared for detecting feigned posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a simulation research design. Participants were 85 undergraduates in one of three groups: PTSDs (n = 23), Fakers (n = 31), and Controls (n = 31). As expected, both the MMPI-2 and PAI discriminated PTSDs and Controls, with PTSDs scoring significantly higher on fake-bad validity scales and PTSD-relevant clinical scales. However, only the MMPI-2 discriminated Fakers and PTSDs, with Fakers scoring significantly higher on all MMPI-2 scales considered, but on only one PAI scale. Further, in logistic regression analyses the MMPI-2 demonstrated higher overall correct classification of PTSDs and Fakers than did the PAI. Although the MMPI-2 outperformed the PAI in detecting feigned PTSD, a substantial proportion of Fakers avoided detection by MMPI-2 fake-bad validity scales, suggesting that both tests are vulnerable to feigning of PTSD by motivated respondents with relatively limited coaching.     

Examination of the reliability and validity of the personality assessment inventory

The reliability, discriminant validity, and construct validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) — a multidimensional self-report measure of abnormal personality traits — were examined within the Australian context. Subjects included 151 normals, 30 alcoholics, and 30 schizophrenic patients. A subsample of 70 nonpsychiatric adults responded to the PAI items twice over a test-retest interval of 28 days. The resulting median retest coefficient was 0.7, indicating less than optimal stability. The median alpha (KR₂₁) coefficient was 0.8, suggesting somewhat narrow measurement scales. A significant multivariate main effect was obtained across groups after the effects of age and gender were removed. Multiple comparisons for each of the PAI scales revealed significant differences between the respective groups, as discussed. A higher-order scale factoring did not strongly support the purported PAI structure. In reanalyses of the correlation matrices included in the Professional Manual, the purported PAI factor structure was unable to be replicated for the standardization clinical sample (N=1246), and a confirmatory factor analysis using the normative (validation) correlational data (N=1000) revealed poor fit indices, raising further concerns about construct validity.     

Detecting back irrelevant responding on the Personality Assessment Inventory in a psychiatric inpatient setting

The present studies focus on strategies for detecting back irrelevant responding (BIR) on the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; L. C. Morey, 1991). Moderate BIR levels can greatly affect the clinical scales of the PAI. Further, the PAI's Inconsistency and Infrequency validity scales are less than optimal for detecting BIR. L. C. Morey and C. J. Hopwood (2004) developed an alternative strategy for detecting BIR that involves comparison of 2 scales from the PAI short-form with the same 2 scales from the PAI full-instrument. The present study examines how different BIR levels affect the clinical, treatment, and interpersonal scales of the PAI in 2 psychiatric inpatient samples. The effectiveness of various strategies for detecting BIR in an inpatient setting is also discussed. Consistent with previous research, moderate rates of BIR impacted several PAI scales in a meaningful way. The Inconsistency and Infrequency validity scales of the PAI were relatively ineffective for detecting low-to-moderate BIR levels. Conversely, the short-form full-instrument comparison strategy was much more sensitive to BIR. Finally, a new BIR detection indicator is presented that improves sensitivity rates for detecting all BIR levels in an acute setting. The implications of these results for detecting BIR in inpatient settings are discussed.     

An Examination of PAI Clinical Descriptors and Correlates in an Outpatient Sample: Tailoring of Interpretive Statements

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey 1991, 2007) was designed to evaluate patterns of psychopathology utilizing validity, clinical, treatment, and interpersonal scales. Its psychometric strengths include easily read items, gradations of responses, and extensive validation. The primary focus of the current study is to examine item-level clinical correlates to inform interpretation. For external validity, the Psychiatric Diagnostic Screening Questionnaire (PDSQ; Zimmerman 2002) was utilized by examining individual items and subscales. The investigation used archival data from 192 outpatients. The most specific and detailed clinical correlates were found for PAI mood disorder scales. Several other clinical scales, such as Schizophrenia (SCZ), had comparatively few clinical correlates. The current findings underscore the need to further validate PAI external correlates in order to augment PAI statements.     

Homelessness and Response Styles on the Personality Assessment Inventory in a Compensation-Seeking Sample

The relationship between validity measures of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) and homelessness was investigated in this archival study. Two groups (N = 50) of compensation-seeking adults were included: homeless and domiciled. The purpose of the study was to determine if differences existed between these 2 groups on the validity measures of the PAI to inform the clinical evaluations of the compensation-seeking homeless. Results of independent sample t tests indicated no significant differences between the homeless and domiciled groups on the 4 validity scales and 2 additional indexes of exaggerated responding (Malingering Index [Morey, 1996] and Rogers Discriminant Function [Rogers, Sewell, Morey, & Ustad, 1996]). Results suggested the compensation-seeking homeless have similar elevations on the PAI validity indexes as domiciled groups seeking compensation.     

Research Validity Scales for the NEO-PI-R: Additional Evidence for Reliability and Validity

We examined the reliability and validity of the research validity scales (Schinka, Kinder, & Kremer, 1997) for the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) in a clinical sample. The Negative Presentation Management (NPM) and Positive Presentation Management (PPM) scales were found to have satisfactory internal consistency reliability. Support for the validity of these scales was provided by the pattern of convergent and discriminant correlations with respective Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) validity scales. Finally, PAI profiles of individuals with invalid NPM scores were found to differ significantly from those with valid NPM scores. Comparisons of the invalid profiles with profiles from other clinical samples provided additional support for the use of the NPM scale as a measure of negative impression management.     

Borderline pathology and the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI): an evaluation of criterion and concurrent validity

In this study, we examined how patients diagnosed with borderline pathology (BP) would respond on the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) Borderline (BOR) scales in relation to patients without BP pathology. In addition, we examined whether the PAI BOR scales would be related to variables on the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale (SCORS; Hilsenroth, Stein, & Pinsker, 2004; Westen, 1995) derived from early memory narratives. Results indicate that outpatients with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. [DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) diagnosis of BP scored significantly higher on the PAI BOR Total (BOR-Total) score, Identity Problems, and Self- Harm scales in comparison to a Non-BP clinical sample. The overall correct classification rate for the presence or absence of BP using the BOR Total scale (T >or= 70) was 73%. In addition, there were several significant relationships between dimensional PAI BOR scales and the presence versus absence of DSM-IV BP. Moreover, both the BOR-Total and Affect Instability scales were significantly related to the SCORS variable Complexity of Representations. We provide clinical examples to illustrate these research findings in an applied manner.     

Research Validity Scales for the NEO-PI-R: additional evidence for reliability and validity

We examined the reliability and validity of the research validity scales (Schinka, Kinder, & Kremer, 1997) for the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) in a clinical sample. The Negative Presentation Management (NPM) and Positive Presentation Management (PPM) scales were found to have satisfactory internal consistency reliability. Support for the validity of these scales was provided by the pattern of convergent and discriminant correlations with respective Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) validity scales. Finally, PAI profiles of individuals with invalid NPM scores were found to differ significantly from those with valid NPM scores. Comparisons of the invalid profiles with profiles from other clinical samples provided additional support for the use of the NPM scale as a measure of negative impression management.     

Introduction to the special issue on the personality assessment inventory

This special issue of the Journal of Personality Assessment brings together 13 new research studies on the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) that should inform users and stimulate future empirical activity with this measure. In 4 articles, authors evaluate the validity scales and indexes of the PAI using both analog and criterion designs and samples from a variety of clinical and forensic settings. In a 5th article, the authors describe a novel approach to profile interpretation using two PAI negative distortion measures. The authors present applications of the PAI to new populations and problems including a German translation of the PAI and profile information for male batterers and victims of head injury. The authors of 2 studies extend research on the validity of the PAI for the assessment of borderline personality disorder. In the final 3 studies, the authors evaluate the validity of PAI measures of violence and aggression to predict subsequent aggressive behavior and institutional misconduct. Finally, the authors offer several suggestions for future research with the PAI.     

Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) Profiles of Male Veterans With Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

The Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; L. C. Morey, 1991) is a promising tool for the assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), but few studies have examined the PAI profiles of individuals with the diagnosis. In this study, the PAI was administered to 176 combat veterans with PTSD. Results showed significant elevations on scales measuring depression, somatic complaints, anxiety, anxiety-related disorders, schizophrenia, and negative impression management. The Traumatic Stress subscale was the highest point in the mean score profile and was moderately correlated with several established measures of PTSD. Veterans with and without comorbid major depression differed on PAI scales assessing depression, anxiety, and warmth. Analysis of two-point codetypes for the PAI and the MMPI-2 revealed substantial heterogeneity in symptom endorsement on both instruments, suggesting that there may be no clear PTSD profile on either instrument. Results provide a reference point for future work with the PAI in PTSD samples.     

Further validation of the psychopathic personality inventory among offenders: personality and behavioral correlates.

The Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996) is a relatively new self-report measure that has shown considerable promise as an index of psychopathic traits in both nonoffender and offender samples. The present study examined the construct validity and predictive utility of the PPI by examining its association with theoretically relevant scales of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) among 60 male prison inmates, and its ability to predict institutional misbehavior in an expanded sample (n = 89). As expected, correlations with the PAI scales were highest for the Antisocial Features (ANT) and Aggression (AGG) scales (rs = .68 and .57, respectively). The PPI also predicted various forms of nonviolent and physically aggressive disciplinary infractions significantly better than chance (point biserial correlations ranging from .26 to .37).     

Measuring intrinsic and extrinsic orientation toward religion: Amendments for its use among religious and non-religious samples

Amendments to the Age-Universal I-E scale, used to measure intrinsic and extrinsic orientations toward religion, are proposed to facilitate the scales' use among both religious and non-religious samples. The original and revised versions of the intrinsic and extrinsic scales were administered to six adult samples from the U.S.A. (N = 156; N = 144), England (N = 135; N = 149) and Norhern Ireland and Republic of Ireland (N = 189; N = 167). Data show in all six samples the percentage of I-E scales completed was greater for the revised version than the original version. In addition, the revised version of the scales demonstrates more satisfactory reliability estimates than the original version. It is suggested that researchers examining intrinsic and extrinsic orientation towards religion may benefit from using the revised version.     

Risk factors for institutional misconduct among incarcerated women: an examination of the criterion-related validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory

Although widely researched in male offender samples, relatively little is known about the clinical utility of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; Morey, 1991) among female prisoners. In this study, we examined the utility of various theoretically relevant PAI scales to predict 3 types of institutional misconduct (general, aggressive/defiant, and covert infractions) in a sample of 113 female inmates incarcerated for at least 1 year. The Antisocial Features (ANT) scale was the most consistent and effective predictor of misbehavior, with limited evidence to suggest that other PAI scales could demonstrate any incremental validity beyond this measure. More important, ANT continued to be associated with institutional misconduct even after controlling for criminal background variables such as prior convictions and a history of violence.     

Career decision-making profiles and career decision-making difficulties: A cross-cultural comparison among US,Israeli, and Chinese samples

Assessing individuals' career decision-making difficulties and career decision-making profile (style) allows counselors to help them make better career decisions. The present study focused on the associations between the Career Decision-Making Profiles (CDMP) questionnaire and the Career Decision-making Difficulties Questionnaire (CDDQ) in four large samples: American adults (N = 601), Israeli young adults (N = 623), American students (N = 915), and Chinese students (N = 929). The pattern of associations between the 12 CDMP dimensions and the 10 CDDQ scales was generally replicated across the four samples, and indicated that certain CDMP dimensions were associated with career decision-making difficulties. Additionally, in all four samples, the higher an individual's career decision-making adaptability, as derived from the CDMP, the fewer difficulties he or she encountered prior to and during the career decision-making process. However, a few unique patterns of associations between the CDMP and the CDDQ emerged in some samples.     

Psychometric Evaluation of the MMPI–2 Restructured Clinical Scales in Two Dutch Samples

In this article, we evaluate internal validity, internal consistency, and test–retest reliability of the MMPI–2 Restructured Clinical (RC) scales in the Dutch MMPI–2 normative sample (N = 1,244) and a Dutch outpatient psychiatric sample (N = 1,066). We pay special attention to a critique regarding construct drift of RC3 and the redundancy of the RC scales with existing MMPI–2 scales. The results indicate that the RC scales in both samples show comparable or better internal consistencies than the Clinical scales. Also, in both samples, the RC scales demonstrate lower scale-level intercorrelations than the Clinical scales. As to the structural characteristics, principal component analysis of the RC scales provided a clearer pattern than an analysis of the Clinical scales. Furthermore, mean raw scores on the RC scales for men in the Dutch normative sample corresponded highly with those in the U.S. normative sample except for RC2 and RC4. Less correspondence was found for women. Overall, we conclude that the RC scales show satisfactory reliability and promising internal validity in our Dutch samples. We suggest that U.S. validation studies on the RC scales may be generalized to the Dutch-language version of the MMPI–2 RC scales.     

Extending the Validity of the Personality Assessment Inventory's (PAI) Level of Care Index (LOCI) in Multiple Psychiatric Settings

The purpose of this study was to extend the validity and clinical application of the Level of Care Index (LOCI) from the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) in 2 independent psychiatric samples. In Study 1 (N = 201), the LOCI effectively differentiated level of care (inpatients from outpatients), and was also meaningfully associated with risk factors for psychiatric admission (e.g., suicidal ideation, self-harming behavior, previous psychiatric admission, etc.), even after controlling for other demographic variables (range of Cohen's ds = 0.57–1.00). Likewise, the LOCI also incremented other risk indicators (suicide and violence history) and relevant PAI indexes (i.e., Mean Clinical Elevation, and Suicide and Violence Potential) in predicting level of care, and explained an additional 6% to 12% of variance in the target variable. Diagnostic efficiency analyses indicated LOCI scores in the range of 15 to 18 optimize positive and negative predictive power, and classification rate. In Study 2 (N = 96), the LOCI was found to be significantly higher in those with a recent psychiatric admission within the past 6 months (d = 0.64), as compared to those without an admission. Similarly, those who were admitted for suicide risk had significantly higher mean LOCI scores as compared to those who did not (d = 0.70). The clinical implications of these findings and potential application of the LOCI are discussed.     

Extraversion,neuroticism, psychoticism and self-reported delinquency: Evidence from eight separate samples

Eight separate samples of high school and university students (Total N = 410) in Britain and Canada were used to test predictions from Eysenck's theory that delinquents should be high scorers on scales of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Self-report paper- and pencil-questionnaire measures of both personality and delinquency were administered under conditions that ensured anonymity. The evidence showed clear support for a relationship between high delinquency scores and high scores on both extraversion and psychoticism. These relationships held up across diverse samples and different ways of analyzing the data. No support was found for a relationship between delinquency scores and the dimension of neuroticism.     

Age of anxiety and depression revisited: A meta-analysis of two European community samples (1964-2015)

Background/Objective: Based on studies using established psychometric scales, Twenge and coworkers have shown substantial increases in trait anxiety, depressive symptoms and neuroticism in North American population samples since the 1950s. Similar analyses for European samples have not yet been conducted. Our study therefore examined whether similar secular trends exist in German-speaking and British non-clinical samples together with possible connected societal factors. Method: A literature search identified 131 studies (N = 63,269) using the STAI, BDI or EPI in non-clinical samples between 1964 and 2015. Seven societal factors from national statistics were included. We conducted meta-analyses with displayed means and moderation analyses of publication year for all scales. Results: In contrast to North America results, anxiety, depression and neuroticism showed no increase in the two European populations. Publication year correlated negatively with and moderated trait anxiety (GER) and neuroticism (UK). Most societal factors were highly correlated with year of publication. Trait anxiety and neuroticism were significantly predicted by age at marriage and unemployment rate in German-speaking countries. Conclusion: The difference in secular trends between European and North American samples may indicate society specific developments connected to different societal factors.     

The inconsistency of inconsistency scales: a comparison of two widely used measures

This study compared the inconsistent responding validity scales of the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) and the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI)/PPI-Revised (PPI-R) in two correctional samples to determine the extent to which they overlap in identifying invalid profiles. Results revealed substantial differences in the way the inconsistent responding validity scales of these measures performed. In particular, the PAI identified far fewer participants as having responded inconsistently compared with the PPI/PPI-R. We discuss the implications of our findings for clinical practice, and potential concerns with the use of a single measure to identify inconsistent responding in clinical practice and research.