Relationships between gender self-esteem,sexual prejudice,and trans prejudice in cisgender heterosexual college students

Our understanding of sexual prejudice, or prejudice against gay men, lesbian women, bisexual people, and other sexual minorities, has improved substantially over the last few decades. Less is known about the factors that predict trans prejudice, or prejudice against trans people. Using the framework of social identity theory, we examined the relationship between gender self-esteem, sexual prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women, and trans prejudice in a sample of 391 self-identified cisgender heterosexual students from a Midwestern university in the United States. Compared to women, men reported more sexual prejudice, trans prejudice, more prejudice toward gay men than lesbian women, and more violence toward, teasing of, and discomfort around trans women than trans men. Whereas both men and women reported more teasing of trans women than of trans men, men reported more discomfort around trans women and women reported more discomfort around trans men. Gender self-esteem significantly predicted sexual prejudice and trans prejudice in men but not women. Consistent with other research, our results indicate that men's sexual prejudice and trans prejudice may be motivated by similar factors, whereas the predictors of women's prejudice may be more specific to the type of prejudice.     

Prejudice in interreligious context: The role of metaprejudice and majority–minority status

Samples of two hundred forty‐five majority Sunny Muslims, 87 Ahmadiyya Muslims, and 145 Christians were used to investigate the determinants and mediators of prejudice in interreligious context in Indonesia. First, the study extends the idea of in‐group and out‐group metaprejudice; both of which were found to mediate the relationship between perceived quality of intergroup relationship and personal prejudice. Second, we expected that majority members are more likely to reject a minority and that a minority is more likely to more strongly reject another minority than the majority for self‐serving reasons. Additionally, the Sunni majority will prejudice and reject the Ahmadiyya minority more than the Christian minority due to the strained religious relation between the two Muslim groups. The hypotheses were confirmed. The findings are discussed in the context of stereotyping, and prejudice dynamics in other intergroup conflicts and ways of coping with such conflict are suggested.     

Personality differences between intrinsically religious and nonreligious students: a factor analytic study

By means of Allport's Religious Orientation Inventory (ROI) 145 students were classified as intrinsically religious and 133 as nonreligious. Personality differences between the two groups were explored on the basis of their scores on EPPS, the CPI, and 16 PF Questionnaire. Factor analysis of the combined 49 subscales of these three instruments produced eight factors: Achievement Potential, Self-Control, Social Ascendency, Affiliation, Personal and Social Adequacy, Egocentric Sexuality, Restlessness, and Stereotyped Femininity. Analyses of variance of the factor scores of the two groups of subjects showed significant differences on five of the eight factors, accounting for a total of 25% of the total variance. The intrinsically religious scored significantly higher on Self-Control, Personal and Social Adequacy, and Stereotyped Femininity; the nonreligious scored higher on Egocentric Sexuality and Restlessness. These results were discussed in relation to some of Allport's ideas on religion as a dimension of personality.     

Differences in Anglo and Asian Australians' explicit and implicit prejudice and the attenuation of their implicit in-group bias

Research has shown that not only are minority groups capable of possessing implicit and explicit prejudice but that the study of their attitudes provides unique insight into the nature of prejudice. The current study found that in an Australian context, Asian participants displayed significantly less implicit prejudice and significantly greater explicit prejudice than their Anglo counterparts. This finding provided further evidence of the dissociation of explicit and implicit attitudes, specifically in regard to their predication. In addition, the attenuation of the implicit prejudice of both the Anglo majority and Asian minority group members was investigated. Brief exposure to positive out-group exemplars was found to attenuate the implicit bias of Asian but not Anglo participants, suggesting that this technique may be contingent upon more fundamental prejudice-reducing measures and providing further support that the undermining of implicit biases requires long-term, effortful processes.     

U.S. ethnic minorities' attitudes towards Whites: The role of shared reality theory in intergroup relations

In the current research, we suggest that shared reality, the belief that one perceives the world the same way as another group, can predict attitudes towards that group. We tested shared reality theory in the context of American ethnic minority groups' (i.e., African Americans, Asian Americans, and Latinas/os) attitudes towards White Americans. In surveys of two samples recruited from different geographical locations in the USA, we tested predictions derived from different theories of intergroup relations. Using mediational analysis, we defined models to assess the extent to which shared reality theory predicted—directly and indirectly—prejudicial attitudes towards Whites. We tested the model derived from shared reality theory against other theoretical alternatives. Taken together, the results of the research indicated that shared reality predicts attitudes towards White Americans among these three ethnic groups. Thus, shared reality is a relevant, though largely overlooked, factor in intergroup dynamics.     

Depression for college students in a traditional Christian culture context: the role of attachment,spirituality and social support

The role of attachment, perceived social support, and perceived discrepancy from spiritual ideal were assessed in their association with depression in college students in a Christian culture environment. Participants (N?=?155) at a small Christian university completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, the Experiences in Close Relationships questionnaire, and questions about satisfaction with social support and discrepancy of their spiritual well-being to an ideal spiritual well-being. Results showed that social support, insecure attachment and discrepancy from spiritual ideal were all significant predictors of depression. Attachment was found to moderate the association between perceived spiritual well-being and depression, with insecurely attached individuals more at risk for depression if they evaluate their spiritual development as lacking. Implications are discussed.     

Intergroup relations in a changing political context: the case of veiled and unveiled university students in Turkey

The present study investigated (a) the underlying dimensions of different measures related to identification, categorization, ingroup bias and contact conditions; and (b) relations between two groups related to an important social controversy over time. Questionnaires were administered to veiled (minority) and unveiled (majority) Turkish female university students during the fall of 1996 and the spring of 1998. Results of factor analysis revealed three factors, namely: tolerance, including perceived outgroup homogeneity, ingroup bias, and individuation; identification, including identification and perceived ingroup homogeneity; and contact conditions, including ratings of pleasantness, frequency and feelings of anxiety. Comparison of groups over time revealed that although the minority group reported lower tolerance for outgroups than the majority the pattern was reversed in 1998. In addition, the majority reported greater negative contact conditions of contact in 1998 than in 1996. No time‐related differences were revealed for the minority with respect to reports of contact conditions. Results were discussed with respect to sensitivity of group relations to social context and to Social Identity Theory. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Generalized and specific components of prejudice: The decomposition of intergroup context effects

Although different types of prejudice tend to be highly correlated, target‐specific and more generalized components can nevertheless be distinguished. Here, we analyze whether indicators of the intergroup context—threat, contact, and neighborhood composition—predict the target‐specific and/or generalized components of prejudice. Using data from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study (N = 4629), we build a multilevel model that captures the relationship between social dominance orientation, general levels of neighborhood heterogeneity, symbolic and realistic threat and cross‐group friendship (averaged across target groups), and generalized prejudice. Our model simultaneously estimates the relationship between target‐specific levels of these intergroup context indicators and target‐specific prejudice. Results indicated that social dominance orientation remained the strongest predictor of generalized prejudice when adjusting for other variables and that indicators of the intergroup context primarily explain differences between target group ratings. Aggregate levels of cross‐group friendship also had a small effect on generalized prejudice.     

Imagined contact and mental illness stigma in an Asian context: Bolstering the effect and examining the impact of factual information

Imagined contact can be effective at reducing social stigma. However, the effect may depend on the strength of the stigma held. We tested the robustness of imagined contact in an Asian setting where stigmatization of mental illness is stronger than in Western countries. In Experiment 1 (n = 167) with five conditions, only an enhanced version of positive imagined contact was able to decrease stigma towards people with schizophrenia through decreasing intergroup anxiety. Given the potential discrepancy between imaginations and reality about experiences with stigmatized groups, in Experiment 2 (n = 121), we tested the hypothesis that after presenting participants with factual information about a mental illness group, imagined contact might backfire, resulting in more negative perceptions. However, enhanced imagined contact alongside factual message about schizophrenia did not increase stigma. The backfiring hypothesis was therefore not supported. Nevertheless, providing realistic information did negate the positive effects of enhanced imagined contact on stigma reduction. In both experiments, we also showed that intergroup anxiety mediated the effect of enhanced imagined contact on various measures of stigma.     

When a child comes out in the latter-days: an exploratory case study of Mormon parents

Under the modern gay rights movement, cultural and societal values regarding sexuality, marriage, and family have rapidly evolved while the fundamental doctrine of monogamous, heterosexual marriage espoused by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has not. Questions arise as to how orthodox Mormon families come to terms with their child coming out in light of the Church’s policy on same-sex marriage and families. This article employs an exploratory case-study method to examine the experience of one such orthodox Mormon family whose child came out as gay. The findings herein suggest that it is possible for families and individuals in these circumstances to develop and maintain loving and supportive relationships in spite of religious differences. These findings better equip academics, professionals, clergy, and families to address the mental health concerns of and create inclusive spaces in families, congregations, and communities for youth who identify as sexual minorities.     

Promoting intergroup openness and support for equality in a new cultural context: Replicating the effects of internal criticism

Exposure to an outgroup member voicing criticism of his or her own group fosters greater openness to the outgroup’s perspective. Research suggests that this effect owes its influence to a serial process in which participants’ perception of the risk involved in voicing internal criticism leads to an increase in the perceived credibility of the speaker. The credibility makes it possible for the speaker to be viewed as open-minded, which subsequently inspires greater hope. This process culminates in an increased openness to the outgroup. These findings have been restricted to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but here we examine their generalizability to racial conflict in the United States. Results reveal that White Americans exposed to internal criticism expressed by a Black authority figure express greater openness to African-American perspectives on race relations and are more willing to support policies of racial equality. Replicating past research, this effect is serially mediated by risk, credibility, and hope.     

对抗偏见:作为偏见消减策略的社会行为

对抗偏见是偏见对象或旁观者对偏见持有者表示不满的社会行为,能够降低偏见持有者的偏见水平,并有助于形成反偏见的社会规范,是一种有效的偏见消减策略。对抗偏见领域的研究可分为对抗偏见效果研究与对抗偏见行为研究。前者主要采用材料型和实验型研究范式,关注对抗偏见的作用机制、具体效果及对抗偏见效果的影响因素;后者主要采用回顾型、实时记录型和前瞻型研究范式,关注对抗偏见行为的发生机制和影响因素。将来这一领域需注重研究范式的综合使用及生态效度的提高,以促进对抗偏见效果研究与对抗偏见行为研究的有机结合;并在对抗偏见的神经机制和有效策略方面进一步深入探索。     

The association between implicit and explicit prejudice: the moderating role of motivation to control prejudiced reactions

The main aim of the present research was to assess the relationship between implicit and explicit ethnic attitude measures and to examine the impact of motivation to control prejudiced reactions on this relation. Implicit ethnic prejudice was assessed by a response latency measure, and a self-report modern prejudice scale was used to assess explicit prejudice. The results showed that an association between implicit and explicit attitudes was observed only when the explicit attitude measure was corrected for motivational bias. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research reporting either association or dissociation between implicit and explicit attitude measures.     

Reducing ethnic prejudice by public campaigns: an evaluation of a present and a new campaign

Most Western governments consider it their responsibility to counteract ethnic prejudice and discrimination, and they sometimes instigate persuasive communication programmes to achieve this aim. Generally, these campaigns do not have the desired effects possibly because designers of such persuasive communication programs have ignored relevant social‐psychological theoretical insights concerning prejudice. In this experiment, a present campaign (launched by the British Commission for Racial Equality) and a new campaign (developed by us) were evaluated. We hypothesized that our campaign would lead to lower levels of prejudice than the present campaign, because when designing our campaign relevant theoretical insights were more sufficiently taken into account. White participants (n=190) were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions or to the control condition. Those in the experimental conditions were exposed to either the present campaign or the new campaign before completing a questionnaire about ethnic minorities. Participants in the control condition were not exposed to a campaign. Results supported the hypothesis and some implications for designing campaigns are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The six types of nonbelief: a qualitative and quantitative study of type and narrative

Extensive research has been conducted in exploration of the American religious landscape; however, only recently has social science research started to explore nonbelief in any detail. Research on nonbelief has been limited as most research focuses on the popularity of the religious “nones” or the complexities of alternative faith expressions such as spirituality. Through two studies, one qualitative and one quantitative, this research explored how nonbelievers’ self-identify. Study 1 (the qualitative study) discovered that individuals have shared definitional agreement but use different words to describe different types of nonbelief. Through thematic coding, a typology of six different types of nonbelief was observed. Those are Academic Atheists, Activist Atheist/Agnostics, Seeker Agnostics, Antitheists, Non-Theists, and the Ritual Atheists. Study 2 explored the empirical aspects of these types related to the Big Five Domain, Ryff Psychological Well-Being, Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Multidimensional Anger Inventory, Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, and intersections related to religious and spiritual ontology.     

Gasoline conservation: a procedure for measuring and reducing the driving of college students

The study sought to motivate college students to reduce the number of miles they drove each day and thus save gasoline. Students in two psychology classes were divided by class into two groups. The experimental group was offered various combinations of prizes such as cash, a tour of a mental-health facility, car servicing, and a university parking sticker for reducing driving. The value of the prize received was scaled in terms of per cent reduction in driving. The contrast group received no inducements. The condition in which the experimental group's mileage reduction was reinforced was counterbalanced by two baseline conditions. Several special recording procedures were used to reduce and detect the possibility of subjects altering their odometers, the source of the driving data. Experimental subjects reduced their average daily mileage by 20% relative to the initial baseline; the contrast group did not change. During the one-month reinforcement condition, the 12 experimental subjects saved some 170 gallons (worth $102) of gasoline.     

Influences of stereotype and social distance on prejudice toward African Americans

The study sought to identify the influential factors of stereotypes, social distance, and prejudice toward racial/ethnic minorities in the United States. We used data from the American General Social Survey (GSS) of 2012, and analysed the data of 4 820 individuals (3 700 Caucasians, 722 African Americans, and 398 others; males?=?44.2%, females?=?55.8%). Data were analysed using the SPSS 18.0 Statistics Program. In order to test for differences in racial prejudice by demographic characteristics by stereotyping and social distancing, we utilised variance and regression analyses procedures. Results suggest that stereotypes and social distance effects on prejudice toward African Americans vary according to ethnicity, gender, age, education, and income. Specifically, older and less-educated white males were more prejudiced toward African Americans than were individuals from other sociodemographic groupings. There was a direct relationship between the holding of stereotypical views and social distance, in that those who showed higher levels of stereotyping maintained a greater social distance from African Americans and showed greater implicit prejudice toward them. Racism toward African Americans remains a major social concern in the USA, and is largely influenced by sociodemographic factors.     

Contingencies of self-worth in college students: theory and measurement

The Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale assesses 7 sources of self-esteem in college students: academics, appearance, approval from others, competition, family support, God's love, and virtue. In confirmatory factor analyses on data from 1,418 college students, a 7-factor model fit to the data acceptably well and significantly better than several plausible alternative models. The subscales all have high internal consistency, test-retest reliability, are distinct from other personality measures, and have a simplex structure arrayed on a continuum from external to internal sources of self-esteem. Contingencies of self-worth assessed prior to college predicted how students spent their time during their 1st year of college.     

Prejudice‐reduction in Culturally Mixed Classrooms: The Development and Assessment of a Theory‐driven Intervention Among Majority and Minority Youth in Finland

The aim of this field experiment was to develop and assess an intervention promoting positive intergroup relations in culturally diverse schools. The intervention was based on extended contact and social learning and utilized behavioural journalism as its method. Intervention effects were assessed on out‐group attitudes, perceived importance of future contact, perceived peer norms and intergroup anxiety among ethnic majority (N = 583) and minority (N = 214) youth in grades 7–9 in Finnish secondary schools (total N_experimental = 388; total N_control = 409). As a result of the intervention, both groups showed a tendency to perceive future intergroup contact as more important, and this effect was most notable for younger participants and girls. Prototypicality of in‐group and out‐group peer models contributed positively to intervention effects. However, unexpectedly, the intervention also increased experiences of intergroup anxiety among the oldest participants. The results are discussed taking into account the developmental stage of the youth studied. Besides critically assessing the effectiveness of the intervention, recommendations for improving theory‐driven prejudice‐reduction and for the development of future interventions in culturally diverse contexts are given. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.