PERSONNEL SELECTION FOR PHYSICALLY DEMANDING JOBS: REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Improvement in personnel selection systems for physically demanding jobs is needed due to equal employment opportunity (EEO) considerations, concern for worker physical well-being, and the lack of alternative procedures. After addressing the special EEO sensitivities of physical abilities selection, the literature is reviewed from a variety of disciplines on: (1) the physiological background underlying the selection strategies, (2) the assessment of human physical abilities, (3) the measurement of physical requirements of jobs, and (4) the physical abilities personnel selection studies reported in the literature. Conclusions are provided in the form of recommendations for future research.     

INTEGRITY TESTING FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION: AN UPDATE

Sackett and M. M. Harris (1984) reviewed published and unpublished literature on the use of commercially available paper-and-pencil integrity tests for employee selection. This paper reviews recent developments in this area. Legal issues related to the use of the polygraph, and integrity tests are discussed. Empirical research on the reliability, criterion-related validity, construct validity, fakability, and adverse impact of integrity tests is reviewed. Major changes since the previous review include (1) the emergence of two distinct types of tests, labeled overt integrity tests and personality-oriented measures, (2) a broadening of the criteria used for test validation to include global performance, absence, turnover, and forms of counterproductivity other than theft, and (3) an increase in the use of external criteria (e.g., detected theft, turnover) rather than self-report criteria (e.g., admissions of theft) in validation research. Difficulties in interpreting research findings and practical constraints on the use of integrity tests are discussed.     

SOCIAL COMMUNICATIVE ANXIETY AND THE PERSONNEL SELECTION PROCESS: TESTING THE SIMILARITY EFFECT IN SELECTION DECISIONS

Three studies tested competing predictions about the role of similarity in personnel selection decisions. Previous research suggests a significant role for applicant-selector similarity in the determination of selection decisions. Applicants who are similar to selectors are evaluated, by selectors, more positively than dissimilar applicants. The current investigations found that when the object of similarity is the applicant's and selector's level of anxiety, this relationship fails to appear. Regardless of the selector's own level of anxiety, the high anxious applicant is less positively evaluated than the low anxious one. This effect appears even when the communication demands of the position are specified.     

THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION OF APPARENT DECLINES IN PREDICTIVE VALIDITIES OVER TIME: A CRITIQUE OF HULIN, HENRY, AND NOON

Hulin, Henry, and Noon (1990) reviewed evidence from a number of studies which supported, in their view, the position that predictive validities decreased over time. If correct, their results would have significant implications for personnel selection practice and research. However, further analysis of their evidence suggested that their results may have only limited generalizability. More specifically, few of the studies they used to support their claim of decreasing predictive validities were field studies of prediction-criterion pairs. Furthermore^ reported data on lagged intercorrelations were of limited relevance to the question of decreasing validities. Finally, a large body of data relevant to the issue of time-lagged validities in a personnel selection context were omitted because the data did not meet Hulin et al.'s restrictive criteria.     

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE USE OF MEASURES OF HONESTY INTEGRITY, CONSCIENTIOUSNESS, DEPENDABILITY TRUSTWORTHINESS, AND RELIABILITY FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION

This paper is the fourth in a series of reviews of the use of measures of honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, dependability, trustworthiness, and reliability for personnel selection (see Sackett & Decker, 1979; Sackett & Harris, 1984; Sackett, Burris, & Callahan, 1989). New developments reviewed include an examination of professional and congressional inquiry into this area of testing, rapid growth of the validity data base, new insight into similarities and differences between different tests, and links to the Big Five personality dimensions. Inquiries into relationships with other constructs, including cognitive ability, moral reasoning, and social desirability are reviewed, as are applicant reactions to these tests. The effects of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 and the Americans with Disabilities Act are considered.     

THE IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING ON EDUCATIONAL AND PERSONNEL SELECTION IN AFRICA

Psychological testing for Education and Personnel selection is of great importance in the efforts by many African countries to ensure that suitable candidates are selected for education beyond the primary school level and for training for different employment. Major investigations directed to this need have been in the area of adapting tests already available in Western countries and determining the reliability and predictive validity of battery of tests so adapted and their tryout in African schools to determine their efficiency as tools for selection.     

CHANGING VIEWS FOR PERSONNEL SELECTION RESEARCH

Changes in views of personnel selection research include changing opinions about choosing predictors and criteria, methods of data collection, and methods of evaluating selection procedures. In particular, distinctions are (or can be) made between job-relatedness, inferred in part from validity coefficients based on job-related criteria, and the valid measurement of a trait (attribute), inferred in part from research using construct-related criteria. The major change identified is a reduction in the sanctity with which a single correlation is viewed for either purpose.     

QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES TO JOB CLASSIFICATION: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE

Job classification decisions underlie nearly all personnel functions (e.g., grouping for test validity generalization, compensation, performance appraisal, training needs analysis, career path and succession planning). Pearlman (1980) performed a comprehensive review of the job-family literature, paying special attention to the problem of forming job families when generalizing aptitude test validities. This review addresses a more specific topic: selecting among and using the numerous quantitative job-classification procedures, with a focus on the decision-making tasks and practical difficulties that confront users of each.     

SELF-CONTROL TRAINING IN THE CLASSROOM: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE

Self-control training in classroom settings is becoming widespread. Establishing effective self- rather than externally controlled behavior modification programs in schools would enable children to control their own academic and social behavior, while enabling teachers to devote more time to teaching. The following components of self-control are reviewed in the present article: self-recording, self-evaluation, self-determination of contingencies, and self-instruction. Self-control strategies designed for the maintenance of appropriate classroom behavior, and issues associated with self-control training, such as the reliability of self-observation, response maintenance, generalization, and the role of external control, are examined. Finally, suggestions for maximizing the potential effectiveness of self-control training in the classroom (e.g., teaching self-observational procedures, teaching students to provide themselves with instructions and praise), as well as future areas for experimental investigation (e.g., social changes that may be associated with self-control procedures), are presented.     

VALIDITY GENERALIZATION: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF THE CORRELATION MODEL

This paper presents a review and critique of the validity generalization research based on the correlation model. Emphasis was placed on integrating the applied validity generalization studies as well as the computer simulation studies which have tested the accuracy of the various validity generalization procedures in estimating the mean and variance of true validity coefficients. In general, this review indicated that the validity generalization procedures are fairly accurate in estimating the mean and variance of true validities, that the preponderance (e.g., 90%) of corrected validity coefficients for a single predictor-criterion relationship, based on a series of cumulative studies, when placed in distributional form are positive, and that a substantial proportion of observed validity coefficient variation can be attributed to statistical artifacts with sampling error accounting for the majority of the artifactual variance. Moreover, potential problems with validity generalization/meta analysis based on criterion-related validity coefficients were discussed. It was concluded that validity general-ization/meta-analysis is an important development in summarizing cumulative research, however, caution should be exercised in utilizing and interpreting the findings of such analyses. Directions for future research aimed at establishing trait-performance relationships were discussed.     

A META-ANALYSIS OF THE VALIDITY OF METHODS FOR RATING TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE IN PERSONNEL SELECTION

This paper reviews the validity evidence for systematic methods used to evaluate training and experience (T&E) ratings in personnel selection. Meta-analytic summaries of the data indicate that validity varies with the type of T&E evaluation procedure used. The lllinois job element and behavioral consistency methods each demonstrated useful levels of validity (.20 and .45, respectively) with small corrected standard deviations, thus supporting validity generalization. Both the point and task methods yielded low mean validities (.11 and .15, respectively) with larger variability. The authors hypothesized that both the point and task methods were affected by a job experience moderator. Partial support for this hypothesis was found. Moderator analyses suggested that the point method was most valid when the applicant pool had low mean levels of job experience and was least valid with an experienced applicant pool. Additional research is desirable on all T&E methods to decrease the potential impact of second-order sampling error in the meta-analytic results. Further research is also needed to explicate the constructs measured by T&E evaluations.     

AGE DISCRIMINATION AND PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY: A REVIEW AND SYNTHESIS OF THE LEGAL LITERATURE WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

One hundred and fifty-two court cases were reviewed to determine the standards set by the courts for establishing a claim of age discrimination under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, as amended. Fifty-three are discussed. Two major issues were examined in Part 1 of the review: (1) the type and extent of the evidence sufficient to establish a complaint of age discrimination and (2) available defenses against age discrimination complaints. Part 2 discussed employer strategies for averting and/or dealing with discrimination complaints. Also discussed were the research-related implications of the age discrimination case law, as well as the role of professionals in future research.     

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AND TERMINATIONS: A REVIEW OF COURT DECISIONS SINCE BRITO V. ZIA WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR PERSONNEL PRACTICES

Court cases since the classic Brito v. Zia (1973) decision dealing with terminations based on subjective performance appraisals are reviewed. Professional interpretations of Brito v. Zia are also examined and criticized in light of professional practice and subsequent court decisions. Major themes and issues are distilled from the review of cases, and implications and recommendations for personnel practices were discussed.     

ENLISTED PERSONNEL SELECTION FOR THE U. S. NAVY1

Recently, over 33% of the new male enlistees were prematurely separated from the Navy (i.e., prior to the expiration of active duty obligation). The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a new screening tool, designed to estimate an applicant's chances of completing the first two years of service. Essentially all nonprior service males enlisting during 1973 were included in the study (N = 68,616). Predictors used were: (1) years school completed, (2) mental group, based upon aptitude level, (3) age, and (4) number of dependents. The dichotomous criterion was survival (72%) vs. loss (28%), after a median two years of service. The model developed on the total sample evidenced a multiple point-biserial validity of .31. Double cross-validation evidence showed that the model will produce reasonably accurate and stable predictions. Management-oriented information was prepared to illustrate the various consequences of employing alternative cutting scores. This permitted examination of the tradeoffs involved in raising or lowering standards in the light of the current supply and demand picture for nonprior service enlisted male applicants.     

CONTENT-ORIENTED PERSONNEL SELECTION IN A SMALL BUSINESS SETTING

This paper illustrates a content-oriented procedure for personnel selection in a small business setting. The procedure focuses directly on criterion performance, inasmuch as it generates lists of tasks relevant to specific job objectives. Rank order correlations provide quantitative indices of agreement between members of the job analysis panel as to the relative importance of the job objectives. The importance of appropriate representation on the job analysis panel is emphasized.     

APPLICANT AGE AND SELECTION INTERVIEW DECISIONS: EFFECT OF INFORMATION EXPOSURE ON AGE DISCRIMINATION IN PERSONNEL SELECTION

Two research questions pertaining to the applicant age bias effect were addressed in this study: the effect of age-related information exposure on selection decisions and the issue of between-sample generalizability with reference to the age bias effect. Manager and student selectors made selection decisions after viewing one videotape of a simulated selection interview of either an old or a young job applicant. Before viewing the interview tape, half of each subject group was given an item of age-related information and the other half was given neutral information. The results showed that, under the neutral information condition, managers preferred hiring the young applicant for the low-status job, and students favored the old candidate for the high-status position. Under the age-related information condition, managers shifted to favoring the old candidate for the low-status job, and students preferred the young applicant for both the low- and high-status positions. Age discrimination in selection decisions and the lack of external validity of student results in selection research are then discussed.     

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CRITERION‐RELATED VALIDATION OF SELECTION PROCEDURES: A CRITICAL REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The use of validated employee selection and promotion procedures is critical to workforce productivity and to the legal defensibility of the personnel decisions made on the basis of those procedures. Consequently, there have been numerous scholarly developments that have considerable implications for the appropriate conduct of criterion‐related validity studies. However, there is no single resource researchers can consult to understand how these developments impact practice. The purpose of this article is to summarize and critically review studies published primarily within the past 10 years that address issues pertinent to criterion‐related validation. Key topics include (a) validity coefficient correction procedures, (b) the evaluation of multiple predictors, (c) differential prediction analyses, (d) validation sample characteristics, and (e) criterion issues. In each section, we discuss key findings, critique and note limitations of the extant research, and offer conclusions and recommendations for the planning and conduct of criterion‐related studies. We conclude by discussing some important but neglected validation issues for which more research is needed.     

A CRITIQUE OF LEADER MATCH AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR LEADERSHIP RESEARCH

It is argued that Fiedler and Mahar's (1979a) conclusion that Leader Match is a promising method for improving leadership effectiveness is unjustified. The core assumption of Leader Match is that congruence between leaders' LPC score and their situations accounts for a major proportion of the variance in group performance. This assumption does not seem sustainable in view of what we currently know about the determinants of group performance, and furthermore it has not been demonstrated by research using the Contingency model. Contingency model research has shown only that leadership style may affect productivity when a number of other structural/situational variables are controlled for. A brief review of empirical research using Leader Match indicates that evidence for the model is unconvincing because of the serious problem of identifying appropriate criteria of leader effectiveness and the prevalence of a number of alternative explanations for the results of many of the studies. The implications of this critique for leadership research in general are then considered.     

METHODS OF IMPROVING EMPLOYMENT TEST CRITICAL SCORES DERIVED BY JUDGING TEST CONTENT: A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE

Setting critical scores on content valid tests may involve making judgments about test content. A conclusion which has been reached in the testing literature is that the Angoff method is preferred as this type of judgmental method of setting standards or critical scores. The current paper reflects this conclusion, but also discusses several limitations of the Angoff method, and outlines why less than optimal data may be obtained using this preferred method or similar methods. Several techniques are reviewed and critiqued that may be used in conjunction with the Angoff method or similar methods to attempt improvement of the psychometric quality of the critical score data. Components from two psychometric frameworks (generalizability theory and Cronbach's, 1955, accuracy scores) are integrated and applied in assessing the impact that each of the techniques may have on Angoff critical score data. The techniques reviewed can be roughly divided into: (a) procedural methods (involved in the judgment process), and (b) psychometric methods (involved in data analysis following judgment). The present review is intended as a resource to personnel testing specialists who may be interested in methods of bolstering the process of judgmentally deriving critical scores.