家庭社会经济地位对流动和城市学步儿社会适应的影响:母亲敏感性和依恋安全感的链式中介作用

该研究采用行为观察及编码的方式对81个家庭（39个流动家庭,42个城市家庭）的母亲敏感性和学步儿依恋安全性进行了评估,同时由母亲报告家庭社会经济地位相关的人口统计学信息和学步儿的社会适应程度,旨在探讨家庭社会经济地位与学步儿社会适应的关系,以及母亲敏感性和依恋关系在其中的作用。结果发现：（1）流动学步儿和城市学步儿在家庭养育环境和社会适应结果方面都存在明显差异,流动家庭比城市家庭的社会经济地位低,流动家庭母亲比城市家庭的母亲较不敏感,流动学步儿比城市学步儿的依恋关系更不安全,同时流动学步儿也表现出较差的社会适应能力和更多的外显行为问题以及失调问题;（2）家庭社会经济地位通过母亲敏感性和依恋关系影响学步儿社会适应的链式中间模型在城市学步儿中部分成立,在流动学步儿中不成立;即排除性别的作用后,来自高社会经济地位家庭中的城市母亲表现出的敏感性较高,与学步儿间的依恋关系越安全,这些城市学步儿的社会适应问题也较少;（3）在流动家庭中,无论家庭社会经济地位如何,敏感性较高的母亲与学步儿间的依恋关系越安全,这些流动学步儿的适应能力也越强。     

Mechanisms Mediating Children’s Perceived Maternal Nonsupportive Reactions to Sadness and Children’s Social and Emotional Functioning

This study examined whether children’s perceptions of maternal nonsupportive reactions to sadness (active discouragement and non-response) influenced children’s loneliness and classroom popularity indirectly through their effects on children’s sadness inhibition and self-perception of social competence. Participants were children in grades 3–6 from a university affiliated public elementary school (N = 175; 53 % females; 37 % racial/ethnic minority). Children reported on the frequency of their mother’s active discouragement and non-response of their sadness, as well their own sadness inhibition, self-perceived social competence, and loneliness. Classroom peers reported on children’s popularity. Results indicated that perceived maternal non-response to sadness was indirectly related to classroom popularity and loneliness through the effect on children’s self-perception of social competence. In contrast, perceived maternal active discouragement of sadness was indirectly related to children’s classroom popularity through the effect on children’s sadness inhibition. These results support the consideration of active discouragement and non-response as distinct constructs and indicate the likelihood of different pathways of influence in predicting emotional and social outcomes such as loneliness and classroom popularity.     

Links between mothers' and children's social competence and associations with maternal adjustment.

Extended previous research on family factors related to children's social competence by examining links between 3 domains of maternal social competence (social skills, social frames, network size) and 3 domains of children's social competence (social skills, peer-rated social preference, and network size) in a sample of 78 mothers and their kindergarten children (42 girls, 36 boys). The mediational role of maternal social competence in the association between mothers' depression and interpersonal sensitivity symptoms and children's social competence was also tested. Results supported associations between all 3 domains of mothers' and children's social competence, with maternal social skills the most frequent predictor of children's social competence. Gender differences suggested that maternal social competence was more strongly related to sons' peer acceptance and daughters' social skills. A mediational model received preliminary support for girls, with maternal psychological symptoms related to girls' social competence via maternal social skills. Implications include the need for continued study of maternal social competence as a family factor related to children's peer functioning and the development of family-based interventions for young children experiencing peer problems.     

Sex differences in interaction style as a product of perceived sex differences in competence

Males' and females' interaction styles were observed while they worked in four-person, mixed-sex groups on a discussion task. In some groups, members were only given information about each others' names and gender. In this circumstance, men were perceived by themselves and other group members to be higher in competence than women. Further, men engaged in a greater amount of active task behavior than women (e.g., giving information, giving opinions), and women exhibited a greater amount of positive social behavior than men (e.g., agreeing, acting friendly). In other groups, members' competency-based status was manipulated by providing false feedback that they were high or low relative to their group in intellectual and moral aptitude. High status members were then perceived to be more competent than low status ones and, further, high status individuals engaged in more active task and less positive social behavior than low status ones. In this condition, no sex differences were obtained on perceived competence or on active task or positive social behavior. Overall, these findings support the idea that the gender differences obtained in interaction when status was not specified were partially a function of group members' belief that the sexes differ in competence. Direct information concerning members' intellectual and moral competence apparently blocked the perceived gender-to-competence link, and status alone affected perceived competence and interaction style.     

父母元情绪理念、情绪表达与儿童社会能力的关系

对341名学前儿童及其父母进行问卷调查, 考察父母元情绪理念、情绪表达与儿童社会能力的直接与间接关系。结果表明：(1) 父亲情绪教导对儿童社会能力有促进作用, 而情绪紊乱对儿童社会能力有阻碍作用; 父亲的积极情绪表达对儿童社会能力有促进作用, 消极情绪表达则有负向作用; 此外, 父亲情绪教导、情绪紊乱除了对儿童社会能力具有直接作用外, 还通过其情绪表达对儿童社会能力具有间接影响。(2) 母亲情绪教导对儿童社会能力具有积极作用, 而情绪紊乱则具有消极影响; 母亲积极情绪表达对儿童社会能力有促进作用, 而消极情绪表达对儿童社会能力无显著预测关系; 母亲情绪教导通过其积极情绪表达对儿童社会能力具有间接促进作用。     

婴儿期母亲将心比心对儿童5岁共情的预测:母亲陪伴总时间的调节作用

使用追踪设计，以68对母婴为被试，探讨母亲养育质量、陪伴时间影响儿童共情发展的机制。在婴儿期（9、14个月）评估母亲将心比心并调查母亲每周陪伴婴儿的总时间与母亲参与的互动时间；在儿童5岁时，采用“陌生人假装受伤情境”范式测查儿童共情。结果发现：（1）婴儿期母亲恰当的心理相关评论能够正向预测5岁时儿童的行为共情，而对情绪共情与认知共情的预测则受到婴儿期母亲陪伴总时间的调节：母亲恰当的心理相关评论能够显著正向预测陪伴总时间短的儿童的情绪共情与母亲陪伴总时间长的儿童的认知共情；（2）婴儿期母亲不协同的心理相关评论能够显著正向预测儿童5岁时的认知共情；（3）婴儿期母亲陪伴总时间能够显著正向预测5岁时儿童的情绪共情。     

Social influences on smoking in middle-aged and older women

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of 2 types of social influence--general social support and living with a smoker--on smoking behavior among middle-aged and older women in the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) Observational Study. Participants were postmenopausal women who reported smoking at some time in their lives (N=37,027), who were an average age of 63.3 years at baseline. Analyses used multiple logistic regression and controlled for age, educational level, and ethnicity. In cross-sectional analyses, social support was associated with a lower likelihood and living with a smoker was associated with a higher likelihood of being a current smoker and, among smokers, of being a heavier smoker. Moreover, in prospective analyses among baseline smokers, social support predicted a higher likelihood and living with a smoker predicted a lower likelihood of smoking cessation 1-year later. Further, in prospective analyses among former smokers who were not smoking at baseline, social support predicted a lower likelihood and living with a smoker predicted a higher likelihood of smoking relapse 1-year later. Overall, the present results indicate that social influences are important correlates of smoking status, smoking level, smoking cessation, and smoking relapse among middle-aged and older women.     

Socioeconomic Status,Emotional/Behavioral Difficulties,and Social Competence among Preschool Children in Japan

Socioeconomic status (SES) is an important contextual factor influencing children’s development. However, there have been limited attempts to examine either the impact of relative poverty on child development or the relationships between specific SES indicators and mental health domains. This study elucidates these relationships in Japanese preschool children who experience high levels of relative poverty. Participants were 3218 Japanese children aged 5–6 years. Their mothers completed self-report questionnaires on SES indicators and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to measure emotional/behavioral problems. Children’s teachers evaluated children’s social competence using the Social Skills Questionnaire for Preschoolers. Each SES indicator had an inverse relationship with all emotional/behavioral problem domains in the univariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis, lower family income consistently predicted higher scores on all emotional/behavioral problem domains, whereas lower maternal and paternal education levels independently predicted higher scores in specific domains. Each SES indicator had positive relationships with all social competence dimensions in the univariate analysis. Higher family income consistently predicted higher social competence in the multivariate analysis. However, paternal education level only predicted self-control, and maternal education did not predict social competence. Family income and parental education levels were significant independent predictors of emotional/behavioral problems and social competence. Thus, this study suggests that SES does affect child outcomes in a country where there is a high level of relative poverty and underscores the importance of assessing income and education status separately in order to identify their potentially unique associations with development among preschool children.     

Effect of reproductive status changes on family functioning and well-being of mothers and daughters

The effects of mother and daughter reproductive changes on maternal perceptions regarding the family are assessed. Mother and daughter reproductive status changes were examined in terms of their effects on family relations and mother and daughter well-being. Controls were made for mother and daughter age and heaviness. 144 mothers (37-59 years) and daughters (14-18 years) were selected from a study of white, middle to upper middle income families in large Eastern metropolitan areas. Mothers were typically well educated and employed and from 2-parent homes; 50% were 1st born. Moos' Family Environment Scale was used to measure family functioning; other measures included daughter's age at menarche, mother's menstrual status, the Ponderal index of mother and daughter heaviness, the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale, an abbreviated version of the Eating Attitudes Test, and Satisfaction with Body Parts scale of Padin, Lerner and Spiro. Self-administered questionnaires were mailed after agreement to participate was confirmed by phone. Analysis of covariance was used to analyze the effect of menstrual status controlling for age on family cohesion or conflict, and the effect of perception of family cohesion or conflict on well-being. Factor-covariate interactions were tested for, and none were found based on the Bonferroni procedure. The cross-sectional results show that early adolescent maturation is not related to increases in family conflict compared with on-time or late maturers, in contrast to Hill's study results. There was no link between perceptions of family conflict on the well-being of mother or daughter. Family cohesion was important to mother and daughter well-being, but was not associated with mother's reproductive status or daughter's reproductive timing. For mothers, the effect was on depression and body image. For daughters, the most important variable was maternal perceptions of family cohesion for all measures of well-being. Daughters' perceptions of well-being were not associated with any well-being measures. Mother's menstrual status and interaction with daughter's menarcheal timing were related to maternal dieting behavior and bulimic symptoms. For daughters, mother's reproductive status and daughter's reproductive timing was significantly related to dieting behavior. Maternal age was related to maternal well-being (depression).     

童年早期社会能力的发展：一个潜变量增长模型

对119名幼儿进行历时两年的三次追踪测试, 采用潜变量增长建模, 检验童年早期的社会能力是否呈线性增长, 并考察气质、性别、母亲受教育程度及其交互作用对社会能力发展水平与速度的预测作用。结果发现：(1)社会能力在两年中呈线性增长, 起始水平及发展速度均存在显著的个体差异; (2)女孩起始的社会能力水平高于男孩; 母亲受教育程度越高, 儿童起始的社会能力水平就越高; (3)气质节律性对社会能力增长速度的预测因儿童性别而异：节律性能够负向预测女孩社会能力的增长速度、正向预测男孩社会能力的增长速度。     

Mothers' emotional expressivity and children's behavior problems and social competence: mediation through children's regulation.

The relations between mothers' expressed positive and negative emotion and 55-79-month-olds' (76% European American) regulation, social competence, and adjustment were examined. Structural equation modeling was used to test the plausibility of the hypothesis that the effects of maternal expression of emotion on children's adjustment and social competence are mediated through children's dispositional regulation. Mothers' expressed emotions were assessed during interactions with their children and with maternal reports of emotions expressed in the family. Children's regulation, externalizing and internalizing problems. and social competence were rated by parents and teachers, and children's persistence was surreptitiously observed. There were unique effects of positive and negative maternal expressed emotion on children's regulation. and the relations of maternal expressed emotion to children's externalizing problem behaviors and social competence were mediated through children's regulation. Alternative models of causation were tested; a child-directed model in which maternal expressivity mediated the effects of child regulation on child outcomes did not fit the data as well.     

Correlates of neonatal morbidity: maternal characteristics and family resources

The association of mental characteristics, family resources, and receipt of prenatal care with infant birth weight, gestational age, and Apgar scores was assessed in a retrospective review of an extant computerized data base of admissions to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU; n = 3,818). Prediction variables included mother's age, marital status, health insurance, parity, prenatal health problems, and prenatal drug use. Less favorable infant birth status was associated with prenatal health problems, being single, not having private insurance, obtaining a prior elective abortion, prenatal drug use, and not receiving prenatal care. Stepwise multiple regressions of predictor variables to birth weight and lack of prenatal care were performed. Low birth weight was associated with being single, receiving no prenatal care, and being Black. Lack of prenatal care was associated with mother's age, high parity, prenatal health problems, and prenatal illicit drug use. Pediatric interventions assessing maternal social and behavioral characteristics are proposed.     

The Longitudinal Interplay of Psychopathology and Social Competence During Chinese Children's Transition to Preschool

The present study examined the longitudinal relations between psychopathology and social competence in a sample of 115 Chinese children during the transition to preschool initiated in their third year of life. Social competence was assessed by maternal reports at three months after preschool entry (T1) and at the end of the first (T2) and second (T3) preschool years. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were assessed by maternal reports at T1 and T2. The results showed that T1 externalizing predicted rank‐order decreases in social competence from T2 to T3. T1 Internalizing predicted rank‐order decreases in social competence from T1 to T2 but growth of competence from T1 to T3 and rank‐order increases in competence from T2 to T3. Rank‐order decreases in internalizing from T1 to T2 also predicted rank‐order increases in social competence from T2 to T3. These longitudinal relations held across gender and proved robust to the inclusion of broad individual and family process variables as covariates. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mother, child, and situational correlates of toddlers' social competence

Mother, child, and situational correlates of toddlers' social competence in the second year were investigated in a sample of 24 children (11 girls, 13 boys). At 12 months, children's temperament (perceived difficulty) was assessed by questionnaire. Between 14 and 17 months, the children's everyday interaction experiences (maternal responsiveness and involvement) were observed at home. At 24 months, the children's social competence (responsiveness, use of social resources) and the quality of maternal behavior (responsiveness, availability) were assessed in a laboratory play room. The children's social competence was positively related to the contemporary (24 months) as well as the preceding (during the second year) maternal behavior. High-quality maternal behavior during the second year was associated with the child's low perceived difficulty at 12 months. Relationships between child and mother behavior particularly occurred in situations providing some challenge to the child.     

Maternal and Paternal Perceptions of Social Competence in Children and Adolescents

We examined maternal and paternal perceptions of social competence in children and adolescents. One hundred forty-seven parents rated scenarios depicting children who varied in age, gender, and social competence. Parents also completed questionnaires assessing the amount of time they spend with their own children, their gender identity, their psychological symptoms, and their affectivity. Results indicated that the amount of time parents spend with their own children was related to maternal and paternal ratings, whereas affectivity was related to paternal ratings. In contrast, parents’ gender identity and psychological symptoms were unrelated to their ratings of social competence. Finally, there was an interaction between parent gender and the level of social competence depicted in the scenarios they rated, suggesting that there were differences in maternal and paternal ratings. These findings emphasize the importance of examining the perceptions of both mothers and fathers when assessing social competence in children and adolescents.     

Effects of day care and maternal teaching on child educability

Two groups of matched mother-child pairs, a day care sample (N = 38) and a home reared sample (N = 38) participated in a study testing mothers for degree of decentred teaching and children for degree of decentred educability. The children were seven years old. Mother and child were tested in separate settings, thus preventing interdependency among scores. The study used a matched-pair design with control of five background variables; age of the child, mother's educational level, mother's occupational status, family SES level, and type of family. The results showed strong positive effects of both day care experience and maternal teaching on child educability. Day care experience improved the educability of children independent of the mother's teaching strategy and gender of the child.     

Maternal Life Stress and Subsequent Chinese Toddlers’ Social Adjustment: The Moderating Role of Inhibitory Control

The current study examined the links between maternal life stress and subsequent toddler behavior problems and social competence, as well as the potential moderating effects of cool and hot inhibitory control (IC) in mainland China. Participants included 89 mothers and their infants (42 boys, 47 girls). Mothers completed self-report measure of maternal life stress when their children were 1 year of age (M?=?1.18, SD?=?.07 at Time 1), and reported on their children’s social adjustment using the Chinese version of Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (CITSEA) at Time 1 and again a year later (M?=?2.06, SD?=?.09 at Time 2). Toddler IC was assessed with laboratory tasks at Time 2. Structural equation modeling with a bootstrap resample of 1000 indicated that cool IC significantly moderated the longitudinal association between maternal life stress (T1) and latent construct of toddler behavior problems (T2), controlling for behavior problems at Time 1, child age and maternal age. Specifically, maternal life stress was associated with subsequent behavior problems only for toddlers who were low in cool IC. In comparison to the results of behavior problems, high levels of maternal life stress predicted subsequent low levels of social competence. Neither cool IC nor hot IC served as the moderator in the association between maternal life stress (T1) and toddler social competence (T2). These findings indicated that toddler cool IC may promote resilient adaptation and modify the links between maternal life stress and toddler behavior problems but not social competence.     

Dyadic processes between mothers and preterm infants: Development at ages 2 to 5 years

In order to identify antecedents to cognitive, language, and social competence from 2 to 5 years of age in preterm children at biological and social risk, this study used multiple procedures, administered in the laboratory, at 13 and 20 months, to measure components of the social interactions between 51 mothers and their preterm infants. Two variables, maternal responsiveness to infant vocalization and infant irritability, were found to be significant predictors of later competence. Whereas greater maternal responsiveness, as expected, led to increased language and social skills, greater infant irritability during stressful situations also foretold later increased competence in expressive and receptive language and social cognition. Children born at higher birthweights and with longer gestations were more likely to be more irritable than those born at very low birthweights. The findings suggest different implications for negative affect in preterms who have experienced respiratory distress as contrasted to full-term children, but indicate similar positive consequences for maternal verbal responsiveness.     

Parental Problem Drinking and Children's Adjustment: Family Conflict and Parental Depression as Mediators and Moderators of Risk

We examined marital conflict, parent–child conflict, and maternal and paternal depression symptoms as mediators and moderators in the associations between fathers' and mothers' problem drinking and children's adjustment. A community sample of 6–12-year-old boys and girls and their mothers, fathers, and teachers participated. Marital conflict, parent–child conflict, and maternal depression symptomatology each functioned as a mediator of the association between father's problem drinking and children's externalizing and internalizing problems, and maternal depression symptoms accounted partially for the link between father's problem drinking and children's social problems. For mother's problem drinking, marital conflict, parent–child conflict, and maternal depression symptoms each mediated the association with children's externalizing problems. Further, parent–child conflict explained partially the link between mother's problem drinking and internalizing problems, and marital conflict accounted for the association between mother's problem drinking and social problems. When the mediators were simultaneously examined, parent–child conflict was the most robust mediator of the association between parental problem drinking and externalizing problems, and maternal depression symptomatology was the most consistent mediator of the relation between parental problem drinking and internalizing problems. Further, parent–child conflict and paternal and maternal depression symptoms each interacted with parental problem drinking to moderate some domains of children's adjustment. The significant moderation effects indicate that parent–child conflict is a robust vulnerability factor for internalizing problems.     

The Bonds that Remind Us: Maternal Reminiscing for Bonding Purposes in Relation to Children's Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance

The present study investigated the relation between characteristics of mother–child reminiscing and children's perceived competence and social acceptance. We focused specifically on conversations for bonding purposes (i.e., conversations that serve the function of maintaining or strengthening the relationship between the child and the mother) as bonding may be a particularly salient context for the development of self‐views. Fifty‐two mothers and their 4‐year‐old children engaged in a past‐talk conversation where mothers were instructed to try to bond with their children. Children's perceived cognitive and physical competence and maternal and peer acceptance, along with language, were measured. Our results indicated that characteristics of maternal talk, particularly maternal support of child's autonomy and child‐centred content, were strongly related to children's perceived social acceptance. Although weaker, there were also associations between maternal talk and children's perceived competence. Results are discussed in light of theories arguing in favour of parent–child discourse as a mechanism for self‐development. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.