Positive and negative affectivity,stress, and well-being in African-Americans: Initial demonstration of a polynomial regression and response surface methodology approach

Objective: The extent to which positive (PA) and negative (NA) affect conjointly impact well-being is not yet well understood. Additionally, research investigating the role of affectivity in maintaining well-being among ethnic and racial minorities is scant. The current research demonstrates how polynomial regression and response surface methodology (PR and RSM) may be used to better understand how PA and NA jointly influence stress and well-being.

Design: In Study 1, 291 African-American undergraduates (M_age = 22.91, SD = 6.91; 67% female) completed measures of affectivity and psychological well-being. In Study 2, a community sample of 117 African-Americans (M_age = 31.87, SD = 13.83; 69% female) completed affectivity measures and a laboratory-based social stressor task to assess links between affectivity and salivary cortisol reactivity.

Main outcome measures: Study 1 included life satisfaction, perceived stress and self-reported depressive symptoms. Study 2 included salivary cortisol reactivity.

Results: Across both studies, PA ascendency (i.e. high PA combined with low NA) was associated with better well-being, while NA ascendancy (i.e. high NA combined with low PA) was associated with poorer outcomes.

Conclusion: PR and RSM may provide new insight into the conjoint influence of PA and NA on health and well-being. We discuss potential implications for affectivity research, including race-related explorations.     

Motivational interviewing and self-determination theory in a web-based computer tailored physical activity intervention: A randomized controlled trial

Objective: This study explores whether a web-based physical activity (PA) intervention grounded in self-determination theory (SDT) and motivational interviewing (MI) is more effective and better appreciated than a traditional web-based PA intervention.

Design: A randomized controlled trial was conducted, comparing (1) I Move; a web-based PA intervention based on SDT and MI, (2) Active Plus; a traditional web-based PA intervention and (3) a waiting list control condition.

Main outcome measures: Weekly minutes of moderate to vigorous PA and weekly days with ≥30 min PA were measured through self-report at baseline and at 3 and 6 months from baseline.

Results: I Move achieved a small, but significant increase in weekly minutes of moderate to vigorous PA, while Active Plus did not have a significant impact on this outcome. Both interventions were effective in increasing weekly days with ≥30 min PA, whereas Active Plus yielded a greater effect on this outcome.

Conclusion: Overall, the web-based PA intervention grounded in SDT and MI did not outperform the traditional web-based PA intervention. Further research should reveal whether this type of intervention is profitable for long-term maintenance of PA levels.     

Revisiting self-regulatory techniques to promote physical activity in older adults: null-findings from a randomised controlled trial

Objective. A randomised controlled trial (RCT) was conducted to evaluate a three-hour face-to-face physical activity (PA) intervention in community-dwelling older German adults with four groups: The intervention group (IG) received behaviour change techniques (BCTs) based on the health action process approach plus a views-on-ageing component to increase PA. The second intervention group ‘planning’ (IGpl) contained the same BCTs, only substituted the views-on-ageing component against an additional planning task. An active control group received the same BCTs, however, targeting volunteering instead of PA. A passive control group (PCG) received no intervention.

Design. The RCT comprised 5 time-points over 14 months in N = 310 participants aged 64+.

Main outcome measures. Self-reported as well as accelerometer-assessed PA.

Results. Neither PA measure increased in the IG as compared to the other groups at any point in time. Bayes analyses supported these null-effects.

Conclusion. A possible explanation for this null-finding in line with a recent meta-analysis is that some self-regulatory BCTs may be ineffective or even negatively associated with PA in interventions for older adults as they are assumed to be less acceptable for older adults. This interpretation was supported by observed reluctance to participate in self-regulatory BCTs in the current study.     

Changes in physical activity among coronary and hypertensive patients: A longitudinal study using the Health Action Process Approach

Objectives: Physical activity (PA) is a key factor in cardiovascular disease prevention. Through the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA), the present study investigated the process of change in PA in coronary patients (CPs) and hypertensive patients (HPs).

Design: Longitudinal survey study with two follow-up assessments at 6 and 12 months on 188 CPs and 169 HPs.

Main outcome measures: Intensity and frequency of PA.

Results: A multi-sample analysis indicated the equivalence of almost all the HAPA social cognitive patterns for both patient populations. A latent growth curve model showed strong interrelations among intercepts and slopes of PA, planning and maintenance self-efficacy, but change in planning was not associated with change in PA. Moreover, increase in PA was associated with the value of planning and maintenance self-efficacy reached at the last follow-up

Conclusions: These findings shed light on mechanisms often neglected by the HAPA literature, suggesting reciprocal relationships between PA and its predictors that could define a plausible virtuous circle within the HAPA volitional phase. Moreover, the HAPA social cognitive patterns are essentially identical for patients who had a coronary event (i.e. CPs) and individuals who are at high risk for a coronary event (i.e. HPs).     

Effects of tailoring ingredients in auditory persuasive health messages on fruit and vegetable intake

Objective: Health messages can be tailored by applying different tailoring ingredients, among which personalisation, feedback and adaptation. This experiment investigated the separate effects of these tailoring ingredients on behaviour in auditory health persuasion. Furthermore, the moderating effect of self-efficacy was assessed.

Design: The between-participants design consisted of four conditions. A generic health message served as a control condition; personalisation was applied using the recipient’s first name, feedback was given on the personal state, or the message was adapted to the recipient’s value.

Main outcome measures: The study consisted of a pre-test questionnaire (measuring fruit and vegetable intake and perceived difficulty of performing these behaviours, indicating self-efficacy), exposure to the auditory message and a follow-up questionnaire measuring fruit and vegetable intake two weeks after message exposure (n = 112).

Results: ANCOVAs showed no main effect of condition on either fruit or vegetable intake, but a moderation was found on vegetable intake: When self-efficacy was low, vegetable intake was higher after listening to the personalisation message. No significant differences between the conditions were found when self-efficacy was high.

Conclusion: Individuals with low self-efficacy seemed to benefit from incorporating personalisation, but only regarding vegetable consumption. This finding warrants further investigation in tailoring research.     

Book reviews and books received

Helping interventions John Heron: Helping the Client: a Creative Practical Guide. London: Sage, 1990. £9.95.

A person-centred perspective on school counselling John McGuiness: A Whole School Approach to Pastoral Care. London: Kogan Page, 1989. £8.95.

How to relate effectively Richard Nelson-Jones: Human Relationship Skills (2nd edition). London: Cassell, 1990. £11.95.

Ripe for research? Dave Mearns and Windy Dryden: Experiences of Counselling in Action. London: Sage, 1989. £9.95.

Issues in action Windy Dryden (ed.): Key Issues for Counselling in Action. London: Sage, 1989. £7.95.

The meaning of death Rosemary Dinnage: The Ruffian on the Stair: Reflections on Death. London: Viking, 1990. £14.99.

The empty cradle Irving G. Leon: When a Baby Dies: Psychotherapy for Pregnancy and Newborn Loss. London: Yale University Press, 1990. £20.

Children against themselves Israel Orbach: Children Who Don't Want to Live: Understanding and Treating the Suicidal Child. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1988. £17.95.     

Book reviews and books received

Practical help for family therapists John Carpenter and Andy Treacher: Marital and Family Therapy. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989. €29.50 (hardback); €9.95 (paperback).

Survival for the guidance teacher W.P. Gothard and E. Goodhew: Guidance and the Changing Curriculum. London: Croom Helm, 1987. €22.50.

Second-class male Michael S. Kimmel (ed.): Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity. London: Sage, 1987. €35 (hardback); €14.50 (paperback).

Analysing the analyst Rosemary Dinnage: One to One: Experiences of Psychotherapy. London: Viking, 1988. €12.95.

Practical counselling skills revisited Richard Nelson-Jones: Practical Counselling and Helping Skills. London: Cassell, 1988. €7.95.

Snakes and pyramids Jocelyn Chaplin: Feminist Counselling in Action. London: Sage, 1988. €7.95.

The person-centred approach: a key text Dave Mearns and Brian Thome: Person-Centred Counselling in Action. London: Sage, 1988. €7.95.     

Statistically modelling the relationships between Type D personality and social support,health behaviors and symptom severity in chronic illness groups

Objective: The study aimed to develop a predictive model of how Type D personality influences health behaviours, social support and symptom severity and assess its generalisability to a range of chronic illnesses.

Design: Participants were classified as either healthy (n = 182) or having a chronic illness (n = 207). Participants completed an online survey measuring Type D and a range of health-related variables. Chronic illness participants were classified as having either a functional somatic syndrome (i.e. chronic fatigue syndrome or fibromyalgia), where the underlying pathological processes were unclear, or illnesses such as type 2 diabetes, osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis, where the causes are well understood.

Main Outcome Measures: Outcome measures were health behaviours, social support and both physical and psychological symptoms.

Results: The rate of Type D was higher in chronic illness participants (53%) than in healthy controls (39%). Negative affectivity (NA) and social inhibition (SI) both correlated with outcome measures, although NA was generally the stronger predictor. Using NA and SI as independent subscales led to superior prediction of health outcomes than using categorical or continuous representations.

Conclusion: Findings suggest that the relationship between Type D and health outcomes may generalise across different chronic illnesses.     

A cluster randomised controlled trial of an intervention based on the Health Action Process Approach for increasing fruit and vegetable consumption in Iranian adolescents

Objective: To evaluate an intervention programme based on the Health Action Process Approach and designed to increase the intake of fruit and vegetables (F&V) among Iranian adolescents aged 13 to 18.

Design: A randomised controlled trial with three arms examined the short- (1 month) and long-term (6 months) effects of the intervention. There were two intervention groups (one included adolescents only [A group; n = 510]; the second included mothers and adolescents [M + A group; n = 462]) and a control group (n = 483). All participants were recruited from schools.

Main outcome measures: Social cognitions, self-regulatory processes and F&V intake.

Results: The intervention led to an increase in F&V intake for adolescents in the short and long terms. Adolescents in the M + A group increased their F& V intake more than adolescents in the A group. Outcome expectancies, self-monitoring, intentions, action and coping planning, perceived social support and behavioural automaticity mediated the effect of the intervention on F&V intake.

Conclusion: The theory-based intervention led to an increase in F&V intake and promoted more positive social cognitions and self-regulatory processes among Iranian adolescents. The findings also provide evidence that involving mothers in an intervention can confer additional benefit.     

Self-reported overeating and attributions for food intake

Objective: We examined whether people’s attributions for their eating behaviour differ according to whether they believe they have eaten more, less or about the same as they normally would.

Design: Participants were served a small or large portion of pasta for lunch. Afterwards, they were asked to compare how much they ate in the study to how much they normally eat for lunch, resulting in three intake-evaluation categories: ‘ate less’, ‘ate about the same’ or ‘ate more’.

Main outcome measures: How much participants ate; the extent to which they attributed their food intake to an internal cue (i.e. hunger) and an external cue (i.e. the amount of food served).

Results: Participants served a large portion ate more than those served a small portion, but the magnitude of the portion-size effect did not vary across intake-evaluation categories. Furthermore, although participants in all groups indicated that their hunger influenced how much they ate, only those in the ‘ate more’ group indicated that the amount of food available influenced how much they ate.

Conclusion: People appear to be willing to explain their food intake in terms of an external cue only when they believe that they have eaten more than they normally would.     

Genetic causal beliefs about obesity,self-efficacy for weight control,and obesity-related behaviours in a middle-aged female cohort

Objective: Obesity is a heritable condition with well-established risk-reducing behaviours. Studies have shown that beliefs about the causes of obesity are associated with diet and exercise behaviour. Identifying mechanisms linking causal beliefs and behaviours is important for obesity prevention and control.

Design: Cross-sectional multi-level regression analyses of self-efficacy for weight control as a possible mediator of obesity attributions (diet, physical activity, genetic) and preventive behaviours in 487 non-Hispanic White women from South King County, Washington.

Main Outcome Measures: Self-reported daily fruit and vegetable intake and weekly leisure-time physical activity.

Results: Diet causal beliefs were positively associated with fruit and vegetable intake, with self-efficacy for weight control partially accounting for this association. Self-efficacy for weight control also indirectly linked physical activity attributions and physical activity behaviour. Relationships between genetic causal beliefs, self-efficacy for weight control, and obesity-related behaviours differed by obesity status. Self-efficacy for weight control contributed to negative associations between genetic causal attributions and obesity-related behaviours in non-obese, but not obese, women.

Conclusion: Self-efficacy is an important construct to include in studies of genetic causal beliefs and behavioural self-regulation. Theoretical and longitudinal work is needed to clarify the causal nature of these relationships and other mediating and moderating factors.     

Book reviews and book received

The most practised, the least taught David S. Werman: The Practice of Supportive Psychotherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1984. $34.00.

Another load of research L.S. Greenberg and W.M. Pinsof (eds.): The Psychotherapeutic Process: a Research Handbook. New York: Guilford, 1986. £39.95.

Crisis of identity K. Yardley &; T. Honess (eds.): Self and Identity: Psychosocial Perspectives. Chichester: Wiley, 1987. £28.

A dig from the 'Rib' Sue O'Sullivan (ed.): Women's Health: a Spare Rib Reader. London: Pandora, 1987. £5.95.

'Weak on vision, hot on workshops' Zandy B. Leibowitz, Caela Farren and Beverley L. Kaye: Designing Career Development Systems. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1986. £30.75.

Holland not neglected in Australia Jan J. Lokan and Keith F. Taylor (eds.): Holland in Australia: a Vocational Choice Theory in Research and Practice. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1986. $A24.95.

Need help getting a job? Elizabeth B. Yost and M. Anne Corbishley: Career Counseling: a Psychological Approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. £24.

Children's health B. Mayall: Keeping Children Healthy. London: Allen &; Unwin, 1986. £6.95.

Educating about divorce Kathleen M. Cox and Martin Desforges: Divorce and the School. London: Methuen, 1987. £7.95.     

Book reviews and books received

Counselling and spirituality Lyall, D. 1995 Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context Buckingham, Open University Press ISBN 0-335-19162-2 £10.99

Career counselling Seligman, L. 1994 Developmental Career Counseling and Assessment (2nd ed.) London, Sage ISBN 0-8039-5804-8 £19.95

Women's careers Walsh, W.B. &; Osipow, S.H. (Eds), 1994 Career Counseling for Women Hove, Erlbaum ISBN 0-8058-1035-8 £53.50

Crisis? what crisis? Dattilio, F.M. &; Freeman, A. (Eds), 1994 Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies in Crisis Intervention New York, Guilford ISBN 0-89862-221-2 £25.00

Guidance on research methods McLeod, J. 1994 Doing Counselling Research London, Sage ISBN 0 8039 7804 9 £10.95

Barker, C. Pistrang, N. &; Elliott, R. 1994 Research Methods in Clinical and Counselling Psychology Chichester, Wiley ISBN 0-471-93612-X £29.95

Research into creative therapies Gilroy, T. &; Lee, C. (Eds), 1995 Art and Music Therapy and Research London, Routledge ISBN 0-415-10045-3 £37.50 (hardback); £15.99 (paperback)

Treating stress Palmer, S. &; Dryden, W. 1995 Counselling for Stress Problems London, Sage ISBN 0-8039-8863-X £12.95

Breast cancer Batt, S. 1994 Patient No More: the Politics of Breast Cancer London, Scarlet Press ISBN 1-85727-167-3 £10.99

Supervision Feltham, C. &; Dryden, W. 1994 Developing Counsellor Supervision London, Sage ISBN 0-8039-8939-3 £9.95     

Book reviews

So you thought you had sorted out a Code of Ethics? Gavin Fairbairn and Susan Fairbaim: Ethical Issues in Caring. Aldershot: Avebury, 1988. £22.50.

The myth of positivism Celia Kitzinger: The Social Construction of Lesbianism. London: Sage, 1987. £8.95.

A family approach to art psychotherapy H. B. Landgarten: Family Art Psychotherapy: a Clinical Guide and Casebook. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1987. $27.50.

Simple psychodynamics Michael Jacobs: Psychodynamic Counselling in Action. London: Sage, 1988.

Optimistic assumptions T. Haberle: Counselling and Curing. London: SPCK, 1987. £3.50.     

Investigating the psychosocial determinants of physical activity in older adults: A qualitative approach

Objective: Despite the benefits of physical activity (PA), only one-third of older adults meet the recommended levels. The present study focused on psychosocial determinants of PA following retirement. Social cognitive theory (SCT) was used to better understand pre- and post-retirement adults’ thoughts about PA, the reasons why some individuals are more active than others, and how PA is incorporated into daily life after retirement.

Design: Seven focus groups of older adults (N = 37, M = 64, SD = 5.20; males = 20) representing a range of PA levels and retirement length participated in one of seven focus groups.

Results: Aligned with SCT, self-efficacy beliefs along with perceptions about barriers and benefits of PA were among the major determinants of PA. Findings highlighted the importance of social support, positive outcome expectations and self-regulatory strategies as motivators. The lack of structure in retirement was a hindrance to incorporating PA into daily routine but, when incorporated, PA provided a sense of purpose in the lives of retired individuals.

Conclusion: It is important to understand the meaning of retirement as a life transition and how it affects beliefs about PA to inform SCT-based health promotion interventions targeting individuals in retirement age.     

Self-efficacy versus perceived enjoyment as predictors of physical activity behaviour

Objective: Self-efficacy and physical activity (PA) enjoyment are related to PA behaviour, but it is unclear which is more important and how they interrelate. The purpose of this study was to examine how these two constructs interrelate to influence PA behaviour.

Design: Participants were low-active adults (n = 448) participating in a RCT examining the effect of a PA promotion intervention. Participants completed physical activity, enjoyment and self-efficacy measures at baseline, six and 12 months.

Results: Self-efficacy and enjoyment at both baseline and six months predicted PA at 12 months. However, enjoyment was a stronger predictor than self-efficacy, in that self-efficacy no longer predicted PA behaviour when included alongside enjoyment. In follow-up mediation analyses, enjoyment at six months did not mediate the effect of baseline self-efficacy on 12-month PA; however, six-month self-efficacy mediated the effect of baseline enjoyment on 12-month PA.

Conclusion: Our results indicate that interventions should perhaps initially focus on increasing enjoyment of physical activity. Greater PA enjoyment appears to influence individuals’ self-reported ability to engage in regular PA (i.e. higher self-efficacy ratings). Additional research is needed to better understand the interrelationships between self-efficacy and enjoyment and how these constructs affect PA.     

Personality traits and body mass index: Modifiers and mechanisms

Objective: To identify how demographic factors (sex, age, ethnicity) modify the association between personality traits and body mass index (BMI) and to test the extent that diet and physical activity account for the personality-BMI relations.

Design: Cross-sectional study with a diverse sample (N = 5150, 50% female, 19% African American, 15% Hispanic). Participants completed a measure of the five major dimensions of personality and reported on their physical activity, diet and food intake behaviour, and height and weight.

Main Outcome Measures: BMI and obesity (BMI ≥ 30).

Results: High Neuroticism was associated with higher BMI and risk for obesity, whereas Conscientiousness and, to a lesser extent, Extraversion and Openness were protective. These associations were generally stronger among women and older participants; there was less evidence for ethnicity as a moderator. Personality had similar relations with the behavioural factors, and physical activity, diet and regular meal rhythms accounted for approximately 50% of the association between Neuroticism and Conscientiousness and BMI.

Conclusion: This study supports the links between personality traits and BMI and suggests that physical activity, more than diet, is a key factor in these associations.     

A longitudinal investigation of older adults’ physical activity: Testing an integrated dual-process model

Objective: To assess the effects of conscious and non-conscious processes for prediction of older adults’ physical activity (PA), we tested a dual-process model that integrated motivational (behavioural intention) and volitional (action planning and coping planning) processes with non-conscious, automatic processes (habit).

Method: Participants (N = 215) comprised community-dwelling older adults (M = 73.8 years). A longitudinal design was adopted to investigate direct and indirect effects of intentions, habit strength (Time 1), and action planning and coping planning (Time 2) on PA behaviour (Time 3). Structural equation modelling was used to evaluate the model.

Results: The model provided a good fit to the data, accounting for 44% of the variance in PA behaviour at Time 3. PA was predicted by intentions, action planning, and habit strength, with action planning mediating the intention-behaviour relationship. An effect of sex was also found where males used fewer planning strategies and engaged in more PA than females.

Conclusions: By investigating an integration of conscious and non-conscious processes, this study provides a novel understanding of older adults’ PA. Interventions aiming to promote PA behaviour of older adults should target the combination of psychological processes.     

On the origin of worries about modern health hazards: Experimental evidence for a conjoint influence of media reports and personality traits

Objective: Worries about health threatening effects of potential health hazards of modern life (e.g. electric devices and pollution) represent a growing phenomenon in Western countries. Yet, little is known about the causes of this growing special case of affective risk perceptions termed Modern Health Worries (MHW). The purpose of this study is to examine a possible role of biased media reports in the formation of MHW.

Design: In two experiments, we investigated whether typical television reports affect MHW. In Study 1, 130 participants were randomly assigned to a film on idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI) or a control film about cystic fibrosis. In Study 2, 82 participants were randomly assigned to either a film on the dangers of electromagnetic fields or a control condition.

Main outcome measures: Increases in MHW after sensational media reports.

Results: In Study 1, only participants high on the personality trait of absorption revealed increased MHW after watching the IEI film. In Study 2, specifically worries about radiation were found to be elevated after watching the film on the dangers of electromagnetic fields compared to the control film.

Conclusion: The results of both studies reveal a significant and specific influence of sensational short mass media reports on MHW. The influence of potential moderators such as absorption remains to be clarified.     

The stress of food allergy issues in daily life

Objective: Food allergies are a growing health concern, but their implications for daily psychological functioning are unknown. This micro-longitudinal study investigated the daily frequency of food allergy issues and how this related to experiences of stress, mood and physical energy.

Design: One hundred and eight adults with physician-diagnosed food allergies completed an initial Internet survey followed by a 2-week Internet daily diary survey.

Main outcome measures: The initial survey collected socio-demographic and food allergy information. The daily survey collected information about the participants’ experiences of stress, mood, physical energy and food allergy issues during that day.

Results: Commonly experienced allergy issues included negative physical symptoms, higher food prices, anxiety about safety of food, trouble maintaining a healthy diet and anxiety/stress at social occasions. Furthermore, multilevel modelling analyses showed that stress and negative mood were significantly higher on days with more allergy issues. Older adults experienced lower positive mood and physical energy on days with more issues.

Conclusion: This is the first study to incorporate near to real-time tracking to examine the frequency of food allergy issues and the implications for daily psychological functioning. Targeting the issues we identified could reduce stress in patients with food allergies and improve their overall quality of life.