清代山西五台县的僧官制度

僧官制度是中国封建统治者管理汉传佛教事务的重要措施。清王朝对地方僧官机构及人员的设置在《清会典》中有制度性规定。山西省五台县的僧官制度具有特殊性,与《清会典》中的规定并不一致。在定义“僧官”一词的基础上,首次分析了五台县特殊的僧官制度,并得出了清代地方僧官机构与行政体制并非简单对应关系的结论。     

辽代僧官的俗职研究

辽代人对佛教的尊崇，使佛教在辽国具有很稳固的地位。为了对佛教进行管理，辽代统治者仿效中原国家建立了僧官制度。辽代僧官与唐宋僧官有很大不同，即许多僧官拥有俗职。这些俗职名目是：门下省的侍中，三师、三公和鸿胪寺卿等公卿官，崇禄大夫和特进等文散阶。僧官的俗职有三个特点，一是所加的官职都是政治地位较高无实权的加衔，二是有俗职的...     

北魏宗教管理体制初探

南北朝时期的佛教和道教发展十分兴盛,为了加强对宗教特别是佛道两教的管理,北魏最早设置僧官制度,任命沙门统和仙人博士官,建立了比较完备的宗教管理体制:昭玄系统和崇虚系统,分别管理佛教和道教.北魏的宗教管理体制首开政府宗教管理的先河,国家在政治、经济等诸多领域对宗教实行宏观管理,其先进的管理体制以及诸多管理原则和管理方式为后世所借鉴,产生了极为深远的影响.     

民国初期的佛教政策及寺院财产管理

佛教寺院财产的管理问题,这是中国历代佛教政策的重要内容之一。北洋政府时期政权变动频繁,军阀混战,各种社会矛盾集中爆发,宗教管理问题也时时困扰当局执政者。由于自身的财政压力所以政府对佛教的寺产时存觊觎之心,佛教事务的管理的重心也主要在佛教寺院财产方面。在佛教管理机构设置上,盛行于封建帝制时代的僧官制度被废止,佛教事务由内务部礼俗司管理。与此同时,政府制定了一系列的宗教政策与法规,将佛教事务的管理纳入到法律管理的轨道,但是佛教寺产的归属问题依然未得到解决。本文从宗教政策的变化、宗教管理机构的设置以及《寺院管理暂行规则》的颁布等几个方面,探讨了民国初期的佛教政策以及政府对寺院财产的管理。     

论明代僧官制度CSSCISSCI

明代僧官制度是朱元璋加强中央集权的产物。僧官制度从中央到地方形成一整套完整的系统。僧官在管理佛教事务中发挥了重要作用,各僧司衙门配合礼部做好全国的佛教管理工作。明代僧官制度与世俗官僚制度相适应,具有鲜明的时代烙印。     

论明代僧官制度

明代僧官制度是朱元璋加强中央集权的产物。僧官制度从中央到地方形成一整套完整的系统。僧官在管理佛教事务中发挥了重要作用,各僧司衙门配合礼部做好全国的佛教管理工作。明代僧官制度与世俗官僚制度相适应,具有鲜明的时代烙印。     

论宋代的僧官制度

本文在中日学者的研究基础上,对宋代僧官制度问题,补充了中央和地方僧官的职位设置情况;还重点探讨了学界未涉及的僧官任命制度的变迁问题,并从历代僧官所拥有的宗教自治权的大小等四个方面,探讨了宋政府欲将佛教置于更严格的国家行政控制之下的施政意图。     

宋金元五台山僧官考——以碑刻题衔为中心

唐五代是五台山僧官制度的确立时期,华严寺智頵担任十寺都检校是五台山僧官之始。五代时五台山僧官称十寺都监,北宋称十寺僧正,金代称十寺都提点,元代称都僧录,自成系统,各具时代特色。在元成宗大德年间,还以五台山为中心成立了一个跨行政区域的"五台等处释教都总摄所",是已知白云总摄所、江淮(浙)诸路总摄(统)所、隆兴等处释教总统所、陇西四川总摄所、宁夏甘肃释教都总统所之外的又一个地方性僧官机构,其宗教史学价值极为重要。这种变化不仅是各个时代僧官制度的不同所致,也是封建王朝为确立自身正统性的必然要求。五代以后五台山僧官多出自真容院系统,对扩大其影响力提供了极大便利,为明初真容院从显通寺分离出来奠定了基础。宋代除了僧官系统之外,五台山还有一个常设的行政管理机构"五台山寺务司"。佛教事务管理的双轨制是五台山宗教管理制度的一大显著特点,这一行之有效的宗教治理模式值得后世借鉴。     

北魏僧官制度探析CSSCISSCI

北魏僧官制度以昙曜任沙门统为界分为前后两期,前期北魏的僧官制度很不完善,昙曜在任沙门统之后,北魏的僧官制度不仅逐渐完善,而且僧官的权利也不断扩大,从而导致北魏晚期僧官的弊政,但北魏较为完善的僧官制度却对北魏的政治、经济、佛教的发展产生了巨大影响,也成为后世制定僧官制度的范本。     

中国古代的佛教僧官制度

佛教传入后最初在上层社会流布。显然汉代的皇帝和宗室接受佛教是后者得以发展的基本前提。确凿的材料显示南北朝时代的后秦时代已有完整的僧官制度。其实还要早一些,即在北魏时代皇帝就已经委任了管理佛教僧人的官员。法果就曾受命为"道人统"。僧官的     

基督教的传播与罗马帝国统治者的因应对策

罗马帝国统治者以政治标准和实用态度裁决基督教,从视为犹太教的一个小教派予以默认,到将其视为一种非法的宗教加以迫害,再到承认其合法性,都是基于统治者的利益和政治的现实需要而调整,最终基督教提升为国教。罗马帝国的基督教政策为未来的国家统治者干涉教会事务确定了先例,对中世纪西欧政教关系的格局产生了深远影响。     

Rebuilding a Confessional State: Islamic Ecclesiology in Turkey,Russia and China

Abstract

Religions are playing an ever more prominent role in the public sphere in the world today, and it hardly seems productive to examine religion–state relations from the traditional liberal standpoint of idealising the state's non-intervention in religious matters. In this article we examine the relations between Islam and the state in Turkey, Russia/the Soviet Union and China, using the concept of the ‘confessional state’. A confessional state tries to use not only its dominant religion but also minority religions of all kinds to mobilise wider groups of the population. In confessional states the relations between the state and bodies of clergy are federative, not master-subordinate. The core of the Ottoman confessional state was the millet system, while the ?eyhülislam managed the Muslim majority. The Russian Empire copied the ?eyhülislam and created the Muftiate. Neither the Qing Empire nor the Republic of China built a nationwide system of Muslim administration, so the People's Republic of China architected it from scratch, on the basis of its own communist idea of the ‘united front’. These confessional states were seriously damaged by Atatürk's secularism in Turkey, communist atheism in the Soviet Union and the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution in China. Later, leaders of these countries realised that secularism and communism could not monopolise the spiritual market of faith, and desperately needed to mobilise the nation, even with the help of traditional religion. They did not try to reintroduce confessional states on the lines of those which had historically existed, but tried to use religious congregations to mobilise the wider strata of the population. In this attempt, the three countries faced different challenges: Turkey suffers from the confessional homogeneity of the state; postcommunist Russia lacks a nationwide Muslim administration; and in China the Muslims do not have an autonomous clerical hierarchy.     

The role of religion in moderating the impact of life events on material life goals: some evidence in support of terror management theory

How would religion and a life event carrying an existential threat (LEET) jointly impact a person's life goals of becoming wealthy and successful in one's career? Goal reprioritisation, socioemotional selectivity, and gerotranscendence theories predict a shift away from material goals following a LEET, independent of the effect of religion. However, terror management theory (TMT) predicts that the effect of death thoughts depends on one's prevailing cultural values. As religion can be regarded as a culture, it is possible that Christians' and non-believers' material life goals would be differentially altered by LEET. Data from 1259 young Chinese adults reveal no main effect of LEET, but a strong effect of religion. Moreover, there was an interaction effect between LEET and religion on material life goals: LEET weakened material goals for Christians but not for non-believers. These findings suggest that TMT is more suitable than the other theories for predicting life goal changes.     

Making and Unmaking Prejudice: Religious Affiliation Mitigates the Impact of Mortality Salience on Out‐Group Attitudes

Research inspired by terror management theory has established that being reminded of the inevitability of death (i.e., “mortality salience”) leads people to express more negative attitudes toward out‐groups. We examined the hypothesis that being affiliated with a religion may buffer individuals against this negative impact of mortality salience. Two studies, conducted in two cultures that differ in their emphasis on religiosity (the United Kingdom and Italy), supported this hypothesis. Specifically, we found that mortality salience resulted in more negative out‐group attitudes only among participants not affiliated with any religion. Further, this buffering effect of religious affiliation was not moderated by participants’ specific religious orientations or by their levels of social dominance orientation. In addition, the buffering effect did not hold when prejudice against the target out‐group was not proscribed by religious authorities. Implications for research on religion, prejudice, and terror management are discussed.     

Learning from their Mistakes: Some Implications of International Relations Scholarship for the Study of Religion

The ‘resurgence’ of religion in global affairs has precipitated a new interest in sectors that have traditionally marginalised religion, exposing the pervasive influence of secularisation theory in the way religion is conceived. Increasingly cognizant of the limitations of their own intellectual heritage, political scientists have developed a number of new and fruitful approaches to religion. I argue that scholars of religion have much to gain from engaging with international relations theorists, in particular from an emerging trend to consider what religion does rather than what religion is. Combining insights from international relations theory and security studies with an analysis of the functional similarities between religion and security, I outline a new direction for the study of religion, suggesting that renewed attention should be paid both to functional accounts of religion and to its role as a system of social differentiation, orientation, and action.     

Theosophy and the origins of the Indian National Congress

Conclusion No doubt the Western conceptualization of the East generally served to subjugate the Indians to their colonial rulers, but it also provided a set of beliefs to which disgruntled Western occultists and radicals, and also Western-educated Indians, could appeal in order to defend the dignity and worth of Indian religion and society. No doubt the founding theosophists had no intention of promoting political radicalism on the subcontinent, but the discourse they helped to establish provided others with an instrument they could use for political ends. Indeed, the formation of the Indian National Congress shows how Western-educated Indians were able to join with Hume to promote their political ends using the particular advantages that involvement in the Theosophical Society had given them. The founders of the Indian National Congress relied on the contacts and commitments generated within the Society; they relied on a capacity for, and a belief in, cooperation, both at an all-India level and also between Indian nationalists and liberal Britons; and they relied on a background discourse that emphasized the strength and claims of India, its heritage and religion. Although we have focused on the origins of the Indian National Congress, the process we have uncovered continued to operate for much of the nationalist era. Annie Besant, like Hume and Sinnett, used theosophy to resolve the Victorian crisis of faith after she had spent some time investigating spiritualist phenomena, and her theosophy combined with her radicalism to take her into the nationalist movement, where she became the only Western woman ever to be elected as president of the Indian National Congress (Taylor 1992). Gandhi (1948), like Malabari, Rao, and Sen, used theosophy to help restore his pride in his native culture to support his vision of ancient India as a vital, rational, and moral society. British occultists such as Besant and Western-educated Indians such as Gandhi turned to theosophy for different reasons, but once they had done so, they shared practices and intellectual commitments that helped sustain the nationalist movement.     

A Mighty Fortress Is Our Atheism: Defining the Nature of Religiousness in the Elderly

SUMMARY

This article considers current trends in research on religion and aging. By considering the perspective of classical sociology, the author argues that we need to understand religion as a belief system with a particular function, rather than a belief system that necessarily contains certain specific beliefs or behaviors.     

Theory as a Tool in the Social Scientific Study of Religion and Martin Riesebrodt's The Promise of Salvation

No single paradigm or debate currently orients the social scientific study of religion. Because of this, those engaged in the multidisciplinary study of religion find that a public conversation is often difficult. In this article and the Forum it introduces, we explore Martin Riesebrodt's recently published book, The Promise of Salvation: A Theory of Religion. Responding to the inadequacies of secularization paradigms, rational choice models, and postmodern criticism, Riesebrodt proposes an approach that ideal‐typically reconstructs the subjective meanings of institutionalized religious practices (liturgies). These subjective meanings center on the prevention and management of crises—social, natural, and bodily—through appeal and access to superhuman powers. This pragmatic emphasis on the superhuman defines religion as a distinct sphere of social action transhistorically and transculturally. Riesebrodt's theory creates new analytical possibilities, especially for understanding the modern resurgence of religion under conditions of secularization.     

Taking liberties and making liberty: religious bounding and political violence in Sri Lanka

This paper argues that the relationship between religion and violent politics is best understood through a focus on religious practice. The case study of the Tamil Catholic Church within Sri Lanka's civil war is presented against a backdrop of Buddhist monk participation in violent insurgency decades earlier. The discrete cases evidence a common preoccupation with management of physical borders and discursive boundaries as actors seek to reproduce themselves and their work as legitimately ‘religious’. Despite relying on remaining ‘pure’ from the dirty political realm, in practice religion is bound to social action and reproduced through the violent circumstances it engages.     

圆佛教基本教理浅析

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