Developmental study of short-term memory characteristics for kinesthetic movement information

The present experiment was designed to examine age-related characteristics of short-term retention of kinesthetic movement information. 20 children from each age group (6, 8, 10 yr.) were tested for recall of kinesthetic end-location. The results indicate that 6- and 8-yr.-old children became less accurate and more variable in recall performance following a delay interval. However, 10-yr.-old children were capable of maintaining performance accuracy during a delay interval.     

Interference in implicit memory caused by processing of interpolated material

This study addresses the susceptibility of implicit memory to interference. Interference is manipulated by presenting interpolated lists of words that do or do not have word stems in common with previously studied target words (e.g., target word paragraph followed by interpolated words such as paradise or vicinity). Interference in a word stem completion task occurred only when words had similar word stems (Experiment 1). Increasing the number of interpolated words with corresponding word stems (e.g., not only paradise but also parking, pardon, and parliament) produced increasing amounts of interference (Experiment 2). Interference in implicit memory appears to be a simple response competition phenomenon that occurs when cues simultaneously activate primed targets and primed competing responses. The amount of interference can be explained by a quantitative model of the relative strengths of target and competing responses.     

Short-term memory and information processing in pigeons

Six pigeons were trained to asymptotic performance on a variable-delay matching-to-sample task in which the samples were sometimes line or color elements and sometimes line-color compounds. On compound-sample trials, the comparison stimuli were sometimes color elements and sometimes line-tilts. Sample type and delay (0, 1.5, and 4.5 sec) were varied within sessions, and sample duration (.4, 1.0, and 3.0 sec) was varied between sessions. Forgetting curves were steeper for line-tilt than for color. As sample duration increased, matching performance improved more for colors than for line-tilts, especially at delays greater than zero. Performance was better with element samples than with compound samples only on the line-tilt dimension at zero delay. Some predictions of a unitary trace growth and decay theory of pigeon short-term memory were not confirmed. A dual-code hypothesis was proposed to account for the data.     

Encoding of kinesthetic extent information

The difference in codability of kinesthetic extent cues for experimenter-determined vs. subject-determined standards was investigated. The task involved moving a slide along a linear track a distance of one-half the total distance of the track. This distance (the standard) was then reproduced. During the presentation of the standard, reaction time to an auditory probe was recorded. One group of subjects determined their own standard (active condition), while the other group moved the slide to a stop located at the standard distance (constrained condition). All subjects were told that the standard was one-half the total distance. A more active encoding process was hypothesized to occur in the active condition which would be reflected in increased reaction time to the probe. The results did not support the attention hypothesis, in that probe reaction times were not significantly different for the two groups. Rather, the data suggested that the important variable in determining the codability of extent cues was the availability of a strategy and not whether the experimenter or the subject determined the standard.

     

Age differences in visual and kinesthetic short-term memory

30 elderly subjects were matched with 30 young subjects and tested on a kinesthetic short-term memory task which required the replication of criterion moves after a variable retention interval under conditions of either rest, differing interpolated movement tasks, or mental activity. A visual control condition was used. Differing interference and temporal decrements were observed. Both old and young subjects differed significantly between sighted and blindfold conditions; however, there was no difference between the performance of the old and the young in the blindfold (kinesthetic) condition. These findings were discussed with respect to practical implications for the retraining of old subjects on certain motor tasks.     

Haptic information processing in direct and indirect memory tests

Summary Effects of learning can show up in a direct, i. e., an explicit, way or they can be expressed indirectly, i. e., in an implicit way. It was investigated whether motor processes underlie effects of repetition priming in haptic information exploration. In the test phase, blindfolded subjects had to handle objects in order to answer questions as fast as possible about their properties (e.g., temperature, texture, weight, or form), exploring the object with their hands. Some of the objects were old ones (presented in a study phase); others were added as new objects to the test phase. In addition, recognition judgements were required. The results demonstrated reliable effects of repetition priming in terms of reaction times to old, in comparison with new, objects for subjects who had been treated the same way in the study phase (active touch). Passive touch at encoding or studying the names or the visible objects themselves did not lead to effects of repetition priming in the test phase. On the other hand, performing adequate hand movements during the study improved recognition memory. The role of motor processes in indirect and direct tests of memory is discussed and related to research on memory of action events.     

Trauma films, information processing, and intrusive memory development

Three experiments indexed the effect of various concurrent tasks, while watching a traumatic film, on intrusive memory development. Hypotheses were based on the dual-representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder (C. R. Brewin, T. Dalgleish, & S. Joseph, 1996). Nonclinical participants viewed a trauma film under various encoding conditions and recorded any spontaneous intrusive memories of the film over the following week in a diary. Changes in state dissociation, heart rate, and mood were also measured. As predicted, performing a visuospatial pattern tapping task at encoding significantly reduced the frequency of later intrusions, whereas a verbal distraction task increased them. Intrusive memories were largely unrelated to recall and recognition measures. Increases in dissociation and decreases in heart rate during the film were also associated with later intrusions.     

Dissociating cognitive and motor interference effects on kinesthetic short-term memory

In two experiments, we investigated how short-term memory of kinesthetically defined spatial locations suffers from either motor or cognitive distraction. In Exp. 1, 22 blindfolded participants moved a handle with their right hand towards a mechanical stop and back to the start and then reproduced the encoded stop position by a second movement. The retention interval was adjusted to approximately 0 and 8 s. In half of the trials participants had to provide a verbal judgment of the target distance after encoding (cognitive distractor). Analyses of constant and variable errors indicated that the verbal judgments interfered with the motor reproduction only, when the retention interval was long. In Exp. 2, 22 other participants performed the same task but instead of providing verbal distance estimations they performed an additional movement either with their right or left hand during the retention interval. Constant error was affected by the side of the interpolated movement (right vs. left hand) and by the delay interval. The results show that reproduction of kinesthetically encoded spatial locations is affected differently in long- and short-retention intervals by cognitive and motor interference. This suggests that reproduction behavior is based on distinct codes during immediate vs. delayed recall.     

Retrograde enhancement of kinesthetic memory by alcohol and by glucose

Several studies have reported that administration of a low dose of alcohol is capable of retrograde enhancement of memory. It has been postulated that the neurobiological mechanisms underlying this effect may involve the liberation of glucose and/or activation of reward centers. Here the effects of a low dose of alcohol were compared to those of glucose on kinesthetic memory. Mood and blood glucose levels were also measured. Compared with a placebo, both glucose and alcohol significantly enhanced kinesthetic memory performance. Only glucose ingestion resulted in significantly elevated blood glucose levels. The three groups' mood scores were statistically indistinguishable. Low-dose alcohol consumption does not result in the release of glucose nor does it affect any aspect of mood, at least as measured here. These results confirm that kinesthetic memory can be improved by administration of alcohol and extend the range of tasks which are sensitive to enhancement by glucose.     

Stimulus control of information processing in pigeon short-term memory

Six pigeons were trained initially on a delayed successive matching-to-sample task using red and green fields as sample and test stimuli. Following acquisition, each sample was followed either by a vertical line (“remember” cue), which indicated that sample memory would be tested, or by a horizontal line (“forget” cue), which indicated that sample memory would not be tested. During the experiments, sample memory on forget trials was tested occasionally. A series of five experiments revealed: (a) better retention on remember trials than on forget trials, (b) increased effectiveness of a forget cue when it followed closely sample offset, (c) more rapid forgetting over a retention interval ranging from 3 to 6 sec on forget trials than on remember trials, (d) a “cancellation” effect in which a remember cue which followed immediately the offset of a forget cue attenuated markedly the effectiveness of the forget cue, and (e) an “insulation” effect in which the effectiveness of a forget cue was reduced considerably when presented after a remember cue. It was concluded that pigeons actively process or rehearse the sample memory during the retention interval.     

Flexibility of information processing and the memory of field-independent and field-dependent learners

This study examined memory differences between 48 field-independent and 48 field-dependent learners, and it hypothesized that rigid information processing by field-dependent learners interferes with cue efficiency during memory recall. The field-independent and field-dependent learners were presented with paired associates in which the target recall words were homographs, and accompanying associates emphasized one of the homograph's two meanings. Homograph recall occurred under three conditions: (a) same cue recall, (b) different cue recall (emphasized other meaning of homograph), and (c) free recall. This study found memory differences favoring the field-independent learner and findings consistent with the rigid information processing hypothesis of field-dependent learners.     

Effect of interpolated temporal activity on temporal short-term memory

The purpose of this research was to determine the retroactive interference effects of a single interpolated task (i.e., one temporal duration) on the retention of a criterion duration. This research is of interest because the mnemonic structure of temporal information of different durations is uncertain. Previous research has indicated that there might be a difference in structure for durations of 1 and 4 sec., although the results are inconsistent. Thus, two criterion durations of 1 and 4 sec. and five interpolated durations (i.e., 60%, 80%, 100%, 120%, and 140% of the duration of the criterion) were utilized under the method of reproduction. In addition, subjects were instructed to use either a counting strategy or none (referred to as conscious time estimation) to facilitate the retention of the temporal information. Recall was less variable when using a counting strategy than not and when estimating 1 sec. than 4 sec. However, there was no effect of interpolated activity when comparing performance across different interpolated conditions (no interpolated activity). Apparently, one interpolated duration is not sufficient to produce structural interference with a single criterion duration.     

Individual differences in learning and memory: A unitary information processing approach

Recent research in the area of individual differences in learning and memory is reviewed from a cognitive perspective. Using the two-state model of memory as a framework, individual variations in attentional, short-term store, and long-term store processes are discussed. The focus is on using individual differences to evaluate nomothetic cognitive models, as well as on using cognitive models in guiding research on individual differences. Both within-individual and between-individual differences in basic processes are examined. In so doing, the importance of strategy choice is stressed using the concept of cognitive flexibility. Several promising directions, both methodological and theoretical, are noted and the value of using specific information processing models in the study of individual differences is emphasized.     

错误记忆产生的认知与神经机制：信息加工视角

采用信息加工视角, 在划分不同信息来源的基础上分析编码、存储(巩固)、再激活/再巩固和提取的一系列加工过程如何导致错误记忆形成, 由此总结出错误记忆产生的三个可能原因：(1)因缺乏针对目标事物特异性细节的记忆表征而侧重于编码和提取目标和非目标事物共享的抽象记忆表征, 使被试更倾向于依赖抽象表征对缺失的目标细节进行重构, 引发错误记忆; (2)目标事物启动了对应图式, 导致与图式相关的非目标事物记忆表征得到增强, 引发错误记忆; (3)误导信息干扰了再度激活状态下目标事物的记忆表征, 妨碍其进行准确的记忆再巩固, 从而引发错误记忆。未来研究可进一步探讨目标事物特异性细节的表征区域、不同类型的图式表征促进非目标事物记忆表征的具体机制以及提取阶段的图式复现对错误记忆形成的影响等问题。     

Attachment and autobiographical memory retrieval: Event-related potential evidence from strategic information processing

This article presents two studies using event-related potentials combined with an autobiographical memory (AM) retrieval task and a lexical judge task to explore differences in AM retrieval among differently attached individuals and to further explore whether the source of these differences is the schematic information processing mode or strategic information processing mode. The effectiveness of the information processing mode is also studied. The results revealed that differences in the AM extraction of different attachment styles were due to the strategic information processing mode, while no differences were found in the schematic information processing used by individuals with different attachment styles. Further, the strategic information processing used by the securely attached group was more flexible and efficient than that used by the insecurely attached group; moreover, the strategic information processing mode used by the avoidantly attached group was more stable and consistent than that used by the anxiously attached group.