Co-occurring motor,language and emotional–behavioral problems in children 3–6 years of age

PurposeDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been shown to co-occur with behavioral and language problems in school-aged children, but little is known as to when these problems begin to emerge, or if they are inherent in children with DCD. The purpose of this study was to determine if deficits in language and emotional–behavioral problems are apparent in preschool-aged children with movement difficulties.MethodTwo hundred and fourteen children (mean age 4 years 11 months, SD 9.8 months, 103 male) performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2). Children falling at or below the 16th percentile were classified as being at risk for movement difficulties (MD risk). Auditory comprehension and expressive communication were examined using the Preschool Language Scales 4th Edition (PLS-4). Parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).ResultsPreschool children with diminished motor coordination (n = 37) were found to have lower language scores, higher externalizing behaviors in the form of increased aggression, as well as increased withdrawn and other behavior symptoms compared with their typically developing peers.ConclusionsMotor coordination, language and emotional–behavioral difficulties tend to co-occur in young children aged 3–6 years. These results highlight the need for early intervention.     

Extending the 3 × 2 achievement goal model to the sport domain: The 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport

In the present research, we sought to extend the 3 × 2 achievement goal model recently proffered in the school domain to the sport domain. We did so by conducting two studies focused on the development and initial validation of the 3 × 2 Achievement Goal Questionnaire for Sport (3 × 2 AGQ-S). Study 1 (n = 679), devised items for the questionnaire and demonstrated that data from the questionnaire nicely fit the proposed 3 × 2 model, showed a better fit to the 3 × 2 model than to alternative models, and indicated that each goal variable had good internal consistency. Study 2 again documented the strong psychometric properties of the measure, and additionally linked the goal variables to other constructs central to the achievement goal literature. The establishment of this measure allows extensive study of the 3 × 2 achievement goal model in the sport domain, and promises to yield deeper insights into the nature of achievement motivation in such contexts.     

Contribution of binocular vision to the performance of complex manipulation tasks in 5–13 years old visually-normal children

Individual studies have shown that visuomotor coordination and aspects of binocular vision, such as stereoacuity and dynamic vergence control, continue to improve in normally developing children between birth and early teenage years. However, no study has systematically addressed the relationship between the development of binocular vision and fine manipulation skills. Thus, the aim of this cross-sectional study was to characterize performance of complex manipulation tasks during binocular and monocular viewing. Fifty-two children, between 5 and 13 years old, performed 2 manipulation tasks: peg-board and bead-threading under randomized viewing conditions. Results showed that binocular viewing was associated with a significantly greater improvement in performance on the bead-threading task in comparison to the peg-board task and the youngest children showed the greatest decrement in task performance under the monocular viewing condition when performing the bead-threading task. Thus, the role of binocular vision in performance of fine manipulation skills is both task- and age-dependent. These findings have implications for assessment of visuomotor skills in children with abnormal binocular vision, which occurs in 2–3% of otherwise typically developing children.     

Reprint of “Co-occurring motor,language and emotional–behavioral problems in children 3–6 years of age”

PurposeDevelopmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) has been shown to co-occur with behavioral and language problems in school-aged children, but little is known as to when these problems begin to emerge, or if they are inherent in children with DCD. The purpose of this study was to determine if deficits in language and emotional–behavioral problems are apparent in preschool-aged children with movement difficulties.MethodTwo hundred and fourteen children (mean age 4 years 11 months, SD 9.8 months, 103 male) performed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd Edition (MABC-2). Children falling at or below the 16th percentile were classified as being at risk for movement difficulties (MD risk). Auditory comprehension and expressive communication were examined using the Preschool Language Scales 4th Edition (PLS-4). Parent-reported emotional and behavioral problems were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).ResultsPreschool children with diminished motor coordination (n = 37) were found to have lower language scores, higher externalizing behaviors in the form of increased aggression, as well as increased withdrawn and other behavior symptoms compared with their typically developing peers.ConclusionsMotor coordination, language and emotional–behavioral difficulties tend to co-occur in young children aged 3–6 years. These results highlight the need for early intervention.     

Differences in the firing rate versus recruitment threshold relationships of the vastus lateralis in children ages 7–10 years and adults

Motor unit (MU) firing rates of the vastus lateralis in children and adults were examined. Seven healthy adult males (mean ± SD, age = 21 ± 2.6 yrs) and six healthy male children (mean ± SD age = 8.8 ± 1.7) volunteered. Surface electromyography (EMG) signals were recorded from 20% and 60% maximal voluntary contractions (MVC). Surface EMG signals were decomposed into firing events of individual MUs and slopes and y-intercepts were calculated for the mean firing rate (MFR, pps) at steady torque vs. recruitment thresholds (RT) relationships for each subject. Muscle cross-sectional area (mCSA) was measured, via ultrasonography, with specific torque calculated (MVC/mCSA). Adults possessed greater mCSA (p = .002; children = 11.5 ± 2.1 cm²; adults = 31.80 ± 12.15 cm²) and greater specific torque (p = .018; children = 4.63 ± 1.4 Nm/cm²; adults = 7.1 ± 1.8 Nm/cm²) compared to children. The y-intercepts were significantly (p < .001) greater during the 60% (28.91 ± 4.56 pps) than the 20% MVC (23.5 ± 4.9 pps) collapsed across groups while the children had significantly (p = .036) lower y-intercepts (23.9 ± 5.4 pps) than the adults (28.2 ± 4.8 pps) when collapsed across intensities. Slopes of the MFR vs RT relationships were greater for the 60% (−0.342 ± 0.127 pps/%MVC) contraction than the 20% (−0.50 ± 0.159 pps/%MVC) MVC when collapsed across groups. Adults had greater firing rates regardless of recruitment threshold than children. This may be due to lower recruitment potential and overall excitation to the motoneuron pool of children as indicated with differences in specific torque and/or differences in antagonist co-activation.     

Development of temporal and spatial characteristics of anticipatory postural adjustments during gait initiation in children aged 3–10 years

This study aimed to analyze the development of direction specificities of temporal and spatial control and the coordination pattern of anticipatory postural adjustment (APA) along the anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) directions during gait initiation (GI) in children aged 3–10 years. This study included 72 healthy children aged 3–10 years and 14 young adults. The child population was divided into four groups by age: 3–4, 5–6, 7–8, and 9–10 years. The GI task included GI using the dominant limb. The peak center of feet pressure (COP) shifts during APAs (APA_peak), initiation time of COP shifts (APA_onset), and the COP vectors in the horizontal plane were calculated to evaluate the direction specificity of spatial, temporal, and coordination control, respectively. A difference in direction specificity development was found for the APA_peak. The APA_peak in the mediolateral axis, but not in the anteroposterior axis, was significantly higher in the 7–8 years age group than in other groups. Although APA_onset was not found for direction specificity, a significant difference between the adult and children groups (5–6 years, 7–8 years, and 9–10 years) was observed in the direction of the COP vector. In conclusion, the developmental process of the spatial, temporal, and coordination control of APAs during GI varied with age. Furthermore, the spatial control and coordination pattern of APAs was found to be direction specific. All components of APAs, namely temporal and spatial control, coordination pattern, and direction specificities, should be analyzed to capture the developmental process of anticipatory postural control.     

Reaching around barriers: the performance of the great apes and 3–5-year-old children

Inhibitory control has been suggested as a key predictive measure of problem-solving skills in human and nonhuman animals. However, there has yet to be a direct comparison of the inhibitory skills of the nonhuman apes and their development in human children. We compared the inhibitory skills of all great ape species, including 3–5-year-old children in a detour-reaching task, which required subjects to avoid reaching directly for food and instead use an indirect reaching method to successfully obtain the food. We tested 22 chimpanzees, 18 bonobos, 18 orangutans, 6 gorillas and 42 children. Our sample included chimpanzees, bonobos and orangutans housed in zoos (N = 27) and others housed in sanctuaries in their native habitats (N = 37). Overall, orangutans were the most skilful apes, including human children. As expected older children outperformed younger children. Sanctuary chimpanzees and bonobos outperformed their zoo counterparts whereas there was no difference between the two orangutan samples. Most zoo chimpanzees and bonobos failed to solve the original task, but improved their performance with additional training, although the training method determined to a considerable extent the level of success that the apes achieved in a transfer phase. In general, the performance of the older children was far from perfect and comparable to some of the nonhuman apes tested.     

Contribution of stereopsis,vergence, and accommodative function to the performance of a precision grasping and placement task in typically developing children age 8–14 years

Upper limb reaching and grasping movements are performed more efficiently during binocular viewing; however, the distinct contribution of stereopsis, fusional vergence, and accommodation (binocular facility, amplitude and accuracy) has not been examined in typically developing children. This study examined binocular visual function in a cohort of 57 typically developing children, 8 to 14 years old. Hand kinematics were recorded using a motion capture camera while children performed a prehension task involving threading a bead onto a needle. Results showed that different aspects of binocular vision contribute to the control of distinct phases of upper limb movements. Specifically, fusional vergence was associated with higher peak reach velocity, stereoacuity was associated with shorter grasp execution, and accommodation was associated with shorter placement duration. These findings suggest that different aspects of binocular vision play an important role in optimizing the control of distinct phases of prehension movements during development.     

Differentiating technical skill and motor abilities in selected and non-selected 3–5 year old team-sports players

This study examined the difference in 22 3–5 year old boys selected to an advanced or non-advanced group on an English community-based professional club training program. Time to complete 15 m linear sprint and 15 m zig-zag agility tests, with and without a ball, were used to assess the children’s technical skill and motor ability. Age and body mass of both groups were the same, whereas height was greater and BMI was lower in the selected group (p < 0.01). Linear sprint times without and with the ball were 3.98 ± 0.35 and 4.44 ± 0.36 s, respectively for the selected and corresponding times were 4.64 ± 1.04 and 11.2 ± 5.37 s for the non-selected (p < 0.01, ES 0.8, 1.8). Similar results were found when a change of movement was included, both with and without the ball. A model of selection indicated that performance in an agility test with the ball and height had the greatest discriminatory power and explained 95.5% of between group variance. Selected players performed significantly better in tests when ball control was required. These findings suggest that technical proficiency and physical differences may influence team selection in three to five year old children.     

Development of the Drooling Infants and Preschoolers Scale (DRIPS) and reference charts for monitoring saliva control in children aged 0–4 years

ObjectivesTo develop and validate a parent questionnaire to quantify drooling severity and frequency in young children (the Drooling Infants and Preschoolers Scale – the DRIPS). To investigate development of saliva control in typically developing young children in the age of 0–4 years. To construct sex-specific reference charts presenting percentile curves for drooling plotted for age to monitor the development of saliva control in infancy and preschool age.Study designThe DRIPS was developed consisting of 20 items to identify severity and frequency of drooling during meaningful daily activities. Factor analysis was performed to test construct validity. A piecewise logistic regression was followed by a piecewise linear regression to construct sex-specific reference charts.ResultsWe obtained 652 completed questionnaires from parents of typically developing children. The factor analysis revealed four discriminating components: drooling during Activities, Feeding, Non nutritive sucking, and Sleep. To illustrate the development of saliva control, eight sex-specific reference curves were constructed to plot the scores of the DRIPS by age group, at the 15th, 50th, 85th and 97th percentile. About 3–15% of the preschoolers in our cohort did not acquire full saliva control at the age of 4 years.ConclusionsWith the DRIPS it is possible to validly compare and visualize the development of saliva control in an individual infant or preschooler and allow clinicians to timely initiate individually targeted interventions if children outperform.     

Cognitive behaviour therapy versus eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for post-traumatic disorder – is it all in the homework then?

IntroductionTreatment of choice for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is either eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) or trauma-focused cognitive behaviour therapy (TFCBT).ObjectiveThe aim of the present meta-analysis was to determine whether there are any differences between these two treatments with respect to efficacy and efficiency in treating PTSD.MethodWe performed a comprehensive literature search using several electronic search engines as well as manual searches of other review papers. Eight original studies involving 227 participants were identified in this manner.ResultsThere were no differences between EMDR and TFCBT on measures of PTSD. However, there was a significant advantage for EMDR over TFCBT in reducing depression (Hedge's g = 0.63). The analysis also indicated a difference in the prescribed homework between the treatments. Meta-regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between hours of homework and gains in depression and PTSD symptoms.ConclusionThese findings are discussed in terms of efficacy and cost-effectiveness and the use of homework in therapy.