Temperamental Factors in the Execution of Interrupted Editing Tasks

The question investigated in this study is how the temperament traits of strength of excitation (SE), strength of inhibition (SI), and mobility (MO) affect behaviour during the execution of computer tasks and tasks interrupting them. Several hypotheses, partly derived from the regulative theory of temperament, were tested in an experiment in which the natural environment and the types of task commonly performed by secretaries were simulated. The sample consisted of 39 female secretaries (21–64 years old). It was found that individuals high on SE and MO needed less time to resume tasks after an interruption than individuals low on these temperament traits. Interruptions similar to the main task resulted in longer resumption times for low-SE individuals. MO was negatively related to the time needed to perform the main task. A model describing the relationship between the frequency of switches between tasks and the speed of task performance in low-MO and high-MO individuals is presented.     

Do not interrupt me if it makes me feel something – Study of the effect of the pleasantness of interruptions on performance

IntroductionInterruptions are mostly related to negative outcomes and researchers already found that the complexity or the length of interruptions modulate their deleterious effect on performance. However, none of them investigated the effect of the pleasantness of interruptions.ObjectiveThe objective of the study is to evaluate the impact of the pleasantness on both the correct completion of the interrupting task and the time required to resume the primary task.MethodWe designed a realistic email searching primary task during which 46 participants were either not interrupted or interrupted by a simple math addition task during which a positive or a negative picture was progressively revealed. We then asked participants how pleasant they found the interrupting task and investigated the effects of perceived pleasantness both on the interrupting task and on resuming the primary task.ResultsResults showed that performance on the interrupting task was worst and the time to resume the primary task was longer when participants found the task very pleasant or very unpleasant. Performance in both tasks was the best when participants gave intermediate pleasantness judgments. The findings were independent of the valence and arousal of the pictures used to manipulate task pleasantness.ConclusionThese results are discussed in light of empirical studies assessing the deleterious effects of emotions on cognition, and practical implications are proposed.     

How do we handle interruptions? Investigating the processes underlying the resumption of interrupted tasks

Although many researchers have studied interruptions and how detrimental they can be for performance, only a small number of studies have successfully identified the cognitive processes involved in the resumption of the primary task after an interruption. We carried out two experiments in which the complexity and the timing of interruption were manipulated. The participants also completed a set of cognitive tests assessing cognitive functions, such as working memory, inhibition or shifting, etc. Results showed that decreasing the complexity and introducing the interruption later in the task reduced the time needed to resume the primary task [i.e. resumption lag (RL)]. Moreover, the complexity effect was related to inhibition, shifting, selective attention and automation, while timing was related to working memory and divided attention. This study provides clues to help us better understand the processes involved when we interrupt our activities and indicates the need to look more deeply at the processes underlying resumption after interruptions.     

Contextual cues aid recovery from interruption: the role of associative activation

A series of experiments introduced interruptions to the execution phase of simple Tower of London problems and found that the opportunity for preparation before the break in task reduced the time cost at resumption. Retrieval of the suspended goal was facilitated when participants were given the opportunity to encode retrieval cues during an "interruption lag" (the brief time before engaging in the interrupting task) but was impeded when these visual cues were subsequently altered following interruption. The results provide useful support for the goal-activation model (E. M. Altmann & G. J. Trafton, 2002), which assumes that context--at the points of both goal suspension and goal retrieval--is critical to efficient interruption recovery.     

Perceptual visual grouping under inattention: electrophysiological functional imaging

Two types of perceptual visual grouping, differing in complexity of shape formation, were examined under inattention. Fourteen participants performed a similarity judgment task concerning two successive briefly presented central targets surrounded by task-irrelevant simple and complex grouping patterns. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded from 22 scalp electrodes and source current density estimations were conducted for the net response to the task-irrelevant background patterns, using low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (LORETA). Although participants’ subjective reports indicated that neither type of organization induced awareness, electrophysiological results showed they both evoked significant activation in occipital, parieto-temporal and frontal brain areas. Behavioral results demonstrated that only grouping of the simple pattern arose under inattention. In contrast to the complex pattern, the processing of the simple pattern was associated with an initially longer latency and higher activation beginning at 130 ms. These results support the distinction of grouping patterns differing in complexity of shape formation.     

直觉和分析在不同任务条件下的逃生决策效果

目的：探讨针对简单和复杂逃生任务时, 直觉和分析在不同判断依据条件下的逃生决策效果。方法：采用两个主实验和两个预备实验。实验一和实验二的被试人数分别为：85人和87人。两个主实验均采取2 (思维方式：直觉和分析) × 2 (判断依据：简单和复杂)组间实验设计。主要结果：(1)针对简单逃生任务, 直觉组和分析组在不同判断依据条件下的逃生决策效果差异不明显; (2)针对复杂逃生任务, 在简单判断依据条件下分析决策优于直觉决策; 在复杂判断依据条件下直觉决策优于分析决策。主要结论：直觉性和分析性逃生决策的效果主要与决策任务的复杂程度有关, 而与判断依据的复杂程度关系不大。     

The Roles of Self-Efficacy and Task Complexity in the Relationships Among Cognitive Ability,Conscientiousness, and Work-Related Performance: A Meta-Analytic Examination

Although cognitive ability and conscientiousness have been found to predict work-related performance, less is known about whether and when certain mediating variables help explain these relationships. This study examined meta-analytically whether self-efficacy mediates the cognitive ability-performance and conscientiousness-performance relationships, and whether task complexity moderates the extent to which self-efficacy mediates these relationships. Results indicated that cognitive ability and conscientiousness positively relate to self-efficacy, but that the magnitude of these relationships varies with task complexity. Furthermore, results showed that self-efficacy mediates the relationships of cognitive ability and conscientiousness with performance on simple tasks, but not on complex tasks. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Sensitivity of event-related brain potentials to task rules

Previous studies have suggested that brain potentials evoked around 300 ms after stimulus onset index the processes underlying perceptual decision-making. However, the sensitivity of these evoked potentials to the task rules, which link sensory perception to the proper action, has not been studied previously. In this study, event-related potentials (ERPs) of the human brain were examined when subjects randomly performed delayed-matching-to-identity (DMI) and delayed-matching-to-category (DMC) tasks. The results showed that the amplitudes of the brain potentials evoked 228–328 ms after test-stimulus onset varied according to the task rules and indexed the processes responsible for decision-making. In contrast to these potentials, the preceding evoked activity (< 228 ms) did not show any sensitivity to the changes in the subjects’ responses and indexed the processes responsible for stimulus perception. These findings support the idea that the potentials evoked after 228 ms from stimulus onset are influenced by the task rules and do not index simple sensory perception.     

The interactive effects of achievement goals and task complexity on enjoyment,mental focus,and effort

Several empirical studies have suggested that achievement goal researchers should put a greater emphasis on identifying factors that may moderate the effects of achievement goals on motivation and related outcomes. In line with this recommendation, the current study sought to examine how one task characteristics (task complexity) may moderate the impact of achievement goals on the motivational outcomes of task enjoyment, mental focus, and exerted effort. Consistent with both the theoretical foundations of achievement goals and the existing research literature, we hypothesized that achievement goals would interact with task complexity in their effects on motivation such that the positive effects of mastery goals would be stronger for complex tasks, the positive effects of performance‐approach goals would be stronger for simple tasks, and the negative effects of performance‐avoidance goals would be weaker for simple tasks. Data collected from 347 undergraduate students assigned to simple or complex task conditions when performing a puzzle‐based task supported these hypotheses. Under complex task conditions, the positive effects of mastery goals were amplified, whereas simple task conditions enhanced the positive effects of performance‐approach goals and minimized the negative impact of performance‐avoidance goals. Future directions for research on achievement goals are discussed, along with potential practical implications of the results of this study.     

Task switching with a 2:1 cue-to-task mapping: separating cue disambiguation from task-rule retrieval

An experiment is reported that investigated switching among two numerical judgment tasks with a factorial variation of the cue-to-task mapping (1:1 vs. 2:1) for each of the tasks. In addition, the precuing interval (CSI) was varied. The results suggest that with a long CSI of 1,100 ms, switching performance is almost completely determined by the task-specific conditional probability of a task switch given a cue switch. This effect probably reflects the complexity of task-rule retrieval. Without preparation (CSI = 0 ms), the complexity of cue disambiguation as a function of the number of cues across tasks seems to account for most part of the additional variance observed in this condition. The latter observation is in line with suggestions that increasing the number of cues per task from one to two introduces additional demands on the level of cue processing that reflect the transition from an isomorphic to a homomorphic mapping function.     

时间复制任务中的计时中断效应

以计时中断范式和时间复制任务相结合,考察了时间复制任务中是否存在计时中断效应。结果表明：（1）计时中断范式中1700ms和2300ms时距复制均出现高估现象,说明两种时距均低于相邻的高低估现象的转换点;（2）计时中断范式中1700ms和2300ms的时距复制任务没有支持计时标量特性;（3）计时中断范式中1700ms和2300ms的时间复制任务出现了计时中断效应。     

奖励驱动的双任务加工过程中的分离脑机制：来自ERP的证据

运用事件相关电位技术, 采用分支双任务范式, 探讨在奖励驱动的双任务加工过程中, 第一任务奖励编码和第二任务奖励编码的时间进程及其脑机制。结果发现：双任务的反应时显著大于单任务的反应时; 单任务的N2波幅显著大于双任务条件; 双任务的P3波幅显著大于单任务条件。双任务加工过程中奖励编码的半球效应主要体现在P3上, 且右半球参与第一任务奖励信息的编码, 驱动第一任务; 两半球协同参与第二任务奖励信息的编码, 驱动第二任务。结果表明：双任务所耗费的心理资源更多, 同时双任务加工过程中第一任务奖励信息编码的半球优势效应与任务的性质有关。     

Temporal characteristics in the fluent speech of child stutterers and nonstutterers

Past research reveals that adult stutterers often possess aberrant speech-timing abilities. As yet, only Healey and Adams (1981) have investigated these abilities in child stutterers. The present study attempted to assess the speech-timing skills of child stutterers and normal-speaking children while performing both simple and complex speech. Each subject was required to participate in two tasks: a sentence repetition task for simple speech and a story-retelling task for complex speech. Results supported those found by Healey and Adams, indicating that child stutterers have speech-timing abilities similar to normal-speaking children in simple speech tasks. The complex task, however, revealed that stutterers exhibited more frequent and longer interword pauses than nonstutterers. Two hypotheses generated from past research are offered to explain these differences. A third untested theory is also presented.     

Effects of concurrent monitoring on cognitive load and performance as a function of task complexity

For self‐regulated learning to be effective, students or trainees need to be able to accurately monitor their performance while they are working on a task, use the outcomes as input for self‐assessment of that performance after completing the task and select an appropriate new learning task in response to that assessment. From a cognitive load perspective, monitoring can be seen as a secondary task that may become hard to maintain and hamper performance on the primary task under high load conditions. The experiment presented here investigated the effects of concurrent performance monitoring on cognitive load and performance as a function of task complexity. Results showed that monitoring significantly decreased performance and increased cognitive load on complex, but not on simple tasks. The findings are discussed in terms of theoretical consequences and instructional design for self‐regulated learning. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mitigating disruptive effects of interruptions through training: what needs to be practiced?

It is generally accepted that, with practice, people improve on most tasks. However, when tasks have multiple parts, it is not always clear what aspects of the tasks practice or training should focus on. This research explores the features that allow training to improve the ability to resume a task after an interruption, specifically focusing on task-specific versus general interruption/resumption-process mechanisms that could account for improved performance. Three experiments using multiple combinations of primary tasks and interruptions were conducted with undergraduate psychology students. The first experiment showed that for one primary and interruption task-pair, people were able to resume the primary task faster when they had previous practice with the interruption. The second experiment replicated this finding for two other sets of primary and interruption task-pairs. Finally, the third experiment showed that people were able to resume a primary task faster only when they had previous practice with that specific primary and interruption task-pair. Experience with other primary and interruption task-pairs, or practice on the primary task alone, did not facilitate resumption. This suggests that a critical component in resuming after an interruption is the relationship between two tasks. These findings are in line with a task-specific mechanism of resumption and incompatible with a general-process mechanism. These findings have practical implications for developing training programs and mitigation strategies to lessen the disruptive effects of interruptions which plague both our personal and professional environments.     

Simplest tasks have greatest dual task interference with balance in brain injured adults

Attention difficulties and poor balance are both common sequel following a brain injury. This study aimed to determine whether brain injured adults had greater difficulty than controls in performing a basic balance task while concurrently completing several different cognitive tasks varying in visuo-spatial attentional load and complexity. Twenty brain injured adults and 20 age-, sex- and education level-matched controls performed a balance-only task (step stance held for 30 s), five cognitive-only tasks (simple and complex non-spatial, visuo-spatial, and a control articulation task), and both together (dual tasks). Brain injured adults showed a greater centre of pressure (COP) excursion and velocity in all conditions than controls. Brain injured adults also demonstrated greater interference with balance when concurrently performing two cognitive tasks than control subjects. These were the control articulation and the simple non-spatial task. It is likely that distractibility during these simple tasks contributed to an increase in COP motion and interference with postural stability in stance. Performing visuo-spatial tasks concurrently with the balance task did not result in any change in COP motion. Dual task interference in this group is thus unlikely to be due to structural interference. Similarly, as the more complex tasks did not uniformly result in increased interference, a reduction in attentional capacity in the brain injured population is unlikely to be the primary cause of dual task interference in this group.     

Raised visual detection thresholds depend on the level of complexity of cognitive foveal loading.

The objective of the study was to measure the interactions between visual thresholds for a simple light (the secondary task) presented peripherally and a simultaneously performed cognitive task (the primary task) presented foveally The primary task was highly visible but varied according to its cognitive complexity. Interactions between the tasks were determined by measuring detection thresholds for the peripheral task and accuracy of performance of the foveal task. Effects were measured for 5, 10, 20, and 30 deg eccentricity of the peripherally presented light and for three levels of cognitive complexity. Mesopic conditions (0.5 lx) were used. As expected, the concurrent presentation of the foveal cognitive task reduced peripheral sensitivity. Moreover, performance of the foveal task was adversely affected when conducting the peripheral task. Performance on both tasks was reduced as the level of complexity of the cognitive task increased. There were qualitative differences in task interactions between the central 10 deg and at greater eccentricities. Within 10 deg there was a disproportionate effect of eccentricity, previously interpreted as the 'tunnel-vision' model of visual field narrowing. Interactions outside 10 deg were less affected by eccentricity. These results are discussed in terms of the known neurophysiological characteristics of the primary visual pathway.     

预知任务转换的内源性准备和外源性调节

采用ERP探究在预知条件下任务转换的神经机制。使用“任务转换”实验范式,以汉字（名词/动词）或数字（奇数/偶数）的归类为任务。被试执行任务重复（AA,BB,…）或在两个任务间转换（AB,BA,…）,每个任务序列为连续的两个任务（任务1,任务2）。结果发现,任务1中,在刺激呈现后300ms左右,数、词的转换序列与重复序列出现显著差异;在中央区,320ms左右,任务1中转换序列比重复序列、任务2中转换任务比重复任务都产生一个更为负走向的波。这些结果表明,在预知条件下,简单任务转换的内源性准备可能开始于任务1呈现后300ms左右;内源性准备和外源性调节可能都反映了认知冲突过程,此认知冲突可能是转换代价的主要来源     

Interruptions create prospective memory tasks

When the theory of prospective memory is brought to bear on the ubiquitous experience of failing to resume interrupted tasks, the cognitive reasons for these failures may be understood and addressed. We examine three features of interruptions that may account for these failures: (1) Interruptions often abruptly divert attention, which may prevent adequate encoding of an intention to resume and forming an implementation plan, (2) New task demands after an interruption's end reduce opportunity to interpret resumption cues, (3) The transition after an interruption to new ongoing task demands is not distinctive because it is defined conceptually, rather than by a single perceptual cue. Hypotheses based on these three features receive support from two experiments that respectively manipulate encoding and retrieval conditions. The data support our contention that interrupted tasks are a special case of prospective memory, and allow us to suggest practical ways of reducing vulnerability to resumption failure. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Background Sound Impairs Interruption Recovery in Dynamic Task Situations: Procedural Conflict?

Interruptions impair performance even on simple, static, laboratory‐based tasks, but little research has looked at their impact in more complex and realistic settings that involve dynamically evolving circumstances and other environmental stressors. Using a radar operator task with or without background sound, participants were unexpectedly interrupted to complete another task, which masked the radar screen as the scenario continually evolved. Task efficiency was impaired by interruption: decision‐making time was slower immediately following interruption, this cost being greater and persevered longer in the presence of auditory distraction. Resumption time was also increased with distraction. Eye fixation durations were shorter following interruption, reflecting participants' attempts to rapidly re‐encode and update their model of the situation. These results suggest that those processes involved in task resumption are also susceptible to background sound, and indicate a need for theories of task interruption to better specify the role of attention in interruption recovery. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.