“… And How About Now?”: Effects of Item Redundancy on Contextualized Self‐Reports of Personality

A common method of studying cross-situational variation in personality involves asking people to describe their behavior in several different contexts. Although this approach is intuitively appealing, it introduces a great deal of redundancy into the measurement process and may affect the interpretation of contextualized self-reports. Specifically, when participants are asked the same questions repeatedly in a single questionnaire, they may be compelled to focus on how their behavior is different. We tested this hypothesis by experimentally manipulating the number of contexts that were included in a measure of role-related personality. In 2 experiments (Study 1 N=377, Study 2 N=524), we found that multiple-role questionnaires produced greater variation in trait levels across roles, larger differences between general and role-specific ratings, and weaker correlations between general and role-specific ratings than single-role questionnaires. These findings illustrate how the measurement process can have an effect on the variability of responses to contextualized self-reports.     

Self-referring terms,event transitivity and development of self

We explored 2-year-olds’ developing self-conceptions by examining uses of terms for the self (I, me, own name) to mark contexts of self-action that varied in transitivity. Children differed in their preferred terms for self-reference (I versus proper name/me). “I-users” produced relatively more verbs for highly transitive events that encode subjective experiences of intention and agency and “Name-users” produced relatively more verbs for intransitive events that encode objective experiences of self in motion, even though verb and self-reference vocabularies were similar for the two groups. Results are discussed in terms of children's creative use of language to construct different developmental paths toward self-conceptions and acquisition of the personal pronoun system.     

The Convergent Validity between Self and Observer Ratings of Personality: A meta‐analytic review

The convergent validity between self and observer ratings of the Big Five dimensions of personality was examined by cumulating research findings across studies. The mean correlation corrected for coefficient α in self‐ratings and inter‐rater reliability in observer ratings was .46 for agreeableness (N=6359, k=53), .56 for conscientiousness (N=6754, k=58), .51 for emotional stability (N=8000, k=55), .62 for extraversion (N=7725, k=50), and .59 for openness to experience (N=5333, k=38). Results indicate that, although there is a high degree of construct overlap, both self and observer ratings have substantial unique variance. Moderator effects were analyzed. The duration of acquaintance (strangers vs close relatives) as well as observer type (peers at work vs relatives) were analyzed. Acquaintanceship had a large moderating effect whereas observer type did not moderate the level of convergence.     

Peer relationships and adolescents’ academic and non‐academic outcomes: Same‐sex and opposite‐sex peer effects and the mediating role of school engagement

Background. The literature has documented theoretical/conceptual models delineating the facilitating role of peer relationships in academic and non‐academic outcomes. However, the mechanisms through which peer relationships link to those outcomes is an area requiring further research. Aims. The study examined the role of adolescents’ perceptions of their relationships with same‐sex and opposite‐sex peers in predicting their academic performance and general self‐esteem and the potentially mediating role of school engagement in linking these perceived peer relationships with academic and non‐academic outcomes. Sample. The sample comprised 1,436 high‐school students (670 boys, 756 girls; 711 early adolescents, 723 later adolescents). Method. Self‐report measures and objective achievement tests were used. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was performed to test the hypothesized model and its invariance across gender and age groups. Results. Perceived same‐sex peer relationships yielded positive direct and indirect links with academic performance and general self‐esteem. Perceived opposite‐sex peer relationships yielded positive direct and indirect links with general self‐esteem and an indirect positive link with academic performance, but mediation via school engagement was not as strong as that of perceived same‐sex peer relationships. These findings generalized across gender and age groups. Conclusion. Adolescents’ same‐sex and opposite‐sex peer relationships seem to positively impact their academic performance and general self‐esteem in distinct ways. It appears that school engagement plays an important role in mediating these peer relationship effects, particularly those of same‐sex peer relationships, on academic and non‐academic functioning. Implications for psycho‐educational theory, measurement, and practice are discussed.     

Using the PRISM to compare the explanatory value of general and role-contextualized trait ratings

In an earlier work (Wood & Roberts, 2006), the Personality and Role Identity Structural Model (PRISM) was proposed as a model for organizing the relations between diverse self-perceptions, with a person's general identity ("how I am in general") organized above diverse role identities (e.g., "how I am as an employee"), which in turn is organized above role-specific behaviors and experiences (e.g., typical interactions with coworkers). In the present article, I argue that despite the fact that role trait measures are often much more related to role behaviors than general trait measures in cross-sectional analyses, general trait measures better capture the dispositional causes of a person's role behavior. In support of this, a brief study is presented illustrating how general traits may be better predictors than role-contextualized trait ratings of the evolution of an individual's experiences or behaviors within a given context. Finally, I contend that the basic framework of the PRISM, where a person's behaviors and identities within multiple contexts are assessed simultaneously and longitudinally alongside general personality ratings, is necessary to make strong statements concerning the nature of the relationships between personality traits and role experiences.     

The Impact of Contextual Self‐Ratings and Observer Ratings of Personality on the Personality–Performance Relationship1

This study examined 2 possible ways of increasing the predictive validity of personality measures: using observer (i.e., supervisor and coworker) ratings and work‐specific self‐ratings of Big Five personality factors. Results indicated that among general self‐ratings of Big Five personality dimensions, Conscientiousness was the best predictor of in‐role performance, and Agreeableness and Emotional Stability were the best predictors of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Observer ratings of personality accounted for incremental variance in job performance (in‐role performance and OCB) beyond that accounted for by general self‐ratings. However, contrary to our expectations, work‐specific (i.e., contextual) self‐ratings of personality generally did not account for incremental variance in job performance beyond that accounted for by general self‐ratings.     

Situational Variability in Personal Construing and Social Cognitive Development

Abstract

This study assesses whether contextually based shifts in repertory grid ratings represent an interpretabte individual difference in social cognitive functioning. A group of 117 subjects rated role figures in both general and specific behavioral contexts. Subjects also completed measures of conceptual system abstractness and construct system organization. Results showed significant shifts in grid ratings when role figures are judged in specified as opposed to unspecified contexts. Also, subjects with greater shifts in grid ratings possessed more abstract conceptual systems and formed more highly organized impressions than subjects with fewer shifts in grid ratings     

Narcissism and Discrepancy Between Self and Friends' Perceptions of Personality

Most research on narcissism and person perception has used strangers as perceivers. However, research has demonstrated that strangers' ratings are influenced by narcissists' stylish appearance (Back, Schmukle, & Egloff, 2010). In the present study, we recruited participants and their close friends, individuals whose close relationship should immunize them to participants' superficial appearance cues. We investigated the relation between narcissism and personality ratings by self and friends. Participants (N = 66; 38 women; M_age = 20.83 years) completed the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988) and described their personality on the 100‐item California Adult Q‐Sort (CAQ; Block, 2008). Participants' personality was also described on the CAQ by close friends. The “optimally adjusted individual” prototype was used to summarize participant and friend personality ratings (Block, 2008). Participants with high narcissism scores were ascribed higher optimal adjustment by self than by friends. Narcissistic individuals' self‐ratings were extremely positive and more favorable than friends' ratings of them.     

Japanese body image: Structure and esteem scores in a cross‐cultural perspective

Culture appears to affect body image in general and body esteem in particular, yet do cultural differences in these constructs concern with factorial structure or merely the magnitude of their manifestation? This study examined what body parts and functions the body esteem of young Japanese adults consists of, and assessed its relation with several other construals of the self. A secondary goal was to compare scores of body esteem in Japan with data previously obtained for people of similar age and background in diverse cultures, such as the USA, Hong Kong, and Israel. The primary contention of this study was that body image might vary notably across different cultures. Because of cultural differences in the self, and indirectly also due to physiognomic variation, members of various cultures may differ in the way they conceive their own body, have divergent body ideals, and ultimately experience different feelings toward their body. The subjects were 569 Japanese undergraduates who filled in the Body Esteem Scale (BES) as well as measures of self‐esteem, body consciousness, and social anxiety. Findings show fairly similar structure of body esteem to that found in the USA, but lower ratings of body esteem among Japanese than among their American, Chinese, and Israeli counterparts. In addition, findings indicate a large gender difference on the total BES score: Men expressed higher body esteem than women. Among both genders, however, body esteem correlated positively with self‐esteem and body consciousness, but negatively with social anxiety. It is suggested that the structure similarity between Japanese and American body esteem is the result of universal human mating patterns as well as similar personality structure. The reason for the lower Japanese body esteem may involve general tendency for self‐effacement and social anxiety. Further causes for the lower scores, which may concern broader cultural and historical perspectives, are briefly discussed.     

Peer Sociometric Status and Personality Development from Middle Childhood to Preadolescence

Sociometric status, the regard that other group members confer to an individual, is one of the most ubiquitous and behaviourally relevant attributes assigned to the person by the social environment. Despite this, its contribution to personality development has received little attention. The present three‐wave longitudinal study, spanning the age range 7–13 years (n = 1222), sought to fill this gap by examining the transactional pathways between peer sociometric status (measured by peer nominations) and Five‐Factor personality traits (measured by self‐ratings and parent and teacher ratings). Sociometric status prospectively predicted the development of extraversion. By contrast, agreeableness and neuroticism prospectively predicted the development of sociometric status. Furthermore, individual‐level stability in extraversion was associated with individual‐level stability in sociometric status. The results were robust across different sources of personality ratings. We argue that peer sociometric status in the school classroom is the type of environmental effect that has potential to explain personality development. Because of its stability, broadness, and possible impact across a variety of personality processes, sociometric status can both repetitiously and simultaneously influence the network of multiple inter‐correlated micro‐level personality processes, potentially leading to a new network equilibrium that manifests in changes at the level of the broad personality trait. © 2019 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Self–Observer Rating Discrepancies of Managers in Asia: A study of derailment characteristics and behaviors in Southern and Confucian Asia

Antecedents to self–observer rating discrepancies in multisource instruments have been established at the individual and organizational level. However, research examining cultural antecedents is limited, which is particularly relevant as multisource instruments gain popularity around the world. We investigated multisource ratings of 860 Asian managers from the regions of Southern Asia (n=261) and Confucian Asia (n=599) and analyzed cultural differences in self–observer rating discrepancies. Multivariate regression procedures revealed that the self–observer rating discrepancy was wider for managers from Southern Asia as compared with Confucian Asia. The reason for the discrepancy was driven by managers' self‐ratings being different across cultures than by observer ratings from managers' bosses, direct reports, or peers; the predictor is related to self‐ratings not observer ratings, producing differential self–observer ratings due to self‐ratings. We discuss cultural differences in self‐ and observer ratings within Asia and provide implications for the practice of multisource assessments.     

Profiles of bystanders' motivation to defend school bully victims from a self‐determination perspective

This study was aimed at exploring which latent profiles emerge based on ratings of self‐determined motivation to defend victims of bullying, and to explore if they are related to bystander roles and victimization in bullying, as well as student–teacher relations. Data were collected from 1,800 Swedish and Italian students, with an age range between 10 and 18 years (M = 12.6, standard deviation = 1.74). The students completed a survey in their classrooms. Latent profile analysis was used to explore the possible clusters of individuals with similar ratings on the motivational variables. Multivariate analysis of variances were conducted to explore differences between the profiles in relation to their roles when witnessing bullying and to student–teacher relationships. Four latent profiles emerged. The profiles represented respondents (a) high in prosocial motivation, (b) high in externally extrinsic motivation, (c) intermediate in externally extrinsic motivation, and (d) with identified/introjected motivation. Multivariate analyses showed that reports of bystander roles when witnessing bullying, teacher–student relationships, and bullying victimization, significantly differed over the motivational profiles. The bystanders were unevenly distributed across the four groups and most individuals were categorized in the prosocial motivation group. Female and male bystanders were evenly distributed across clusters. The prosocial motivation group experienced victimization to a lesser extent than the other profile groups. Students in the intermediate externally extrinsic group were more likely to take the pro‐bully and outsider role during bullying. Concerning student–teacher relationships, the prosocial motivation group reported the closest relationships with their teachers, while the intermediate externally extrinsic group reported the most conflictual relationships.     

Does Language Affect Personality Perception? A Functional Approach to Testing the Whorfian Hypothesis

Whether language shapes cognition has long been a controversial issue. The present research adopts a functional approach to examining the effects of language use on personality perception and dialectical thinking. We propose that language use activates corresponding cultural mindsets, which in turn influence social perception, thinking, and behavior. Four studies recruited Chinese‐English bilinguals (N = 129 in Study 1, 229 in Study 2, 68 in Study 3, 106 in Study 4) and used within‐subjects and between‐subjects design, written and behavioral reports, and self‐ and other perceptions. The four studies converged to show that Chinese‐English bilinguals exhibit higher dialectical thinking and more variations in self‐ and observer ratings of personality when using the Chinese language than when using English. Furthermore, dialectical thinking predicted more self‐ and other‐perceived variations in personality and behavior across bilingual contexts. These results highlight the important role of culture in understanding the relations between language and cognition, and attest to the malleability of personality perception and dialectical thinking within and across individuals in response to culture‐related linguistic cues.     

A reexamination of the validity of the Children's Personality Questionnaire

Scores on the Children's Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) were correlated with ratings on the Devereux Elementary School Behavior Rating Scale (DESB). Three judges matched scales from the two instruments that appeared to measure the same behavior. For about one-third of these matches, significant correlations in the predicted direction were found. Of the 154 possible correlations between CPQ factors and DESB scales, 50 reached significance. The results contradict those of a similar investigation (Willis & Seymour, 1978), whose methodology is questioned. The correlations found in the present study provide limited support for the validity of CPQ factors.     

Effects of gender role self-discrepancies and self-perceived attractiveness on social anxiety for women across social situations

Background and objectives: Psychosocial factors, such as gender role norms, may impact how social anxiety disorder (SAD) is experienced and expressed in different social contexts for women. However to date, these factors have not been examined via experimental methodology. Design: This was a cross-sectional, quasi-experimental controlled study. Methods: The current study included 48 highly socially anxious (HSA) women (70.9% meeting criteria for SAD) and examined the relationships among psychosocial factors (i.e. gender role self-discrepancies and self-perceived physical attractiveness), self-perceived social performance, and state anxiety, across two in vivo social tasks (i.e. conversation and opinion speech). Results: On average, participants reported belief that they ought to be less feminine for the speech task and more masculine for both the conversation and speech tasks. Also, for the conversation task, only lower self-rated attractiveness predicted poorer self-perceived performance and greater post-task state anxiety, above gender role self-discrepancies and confederate gender. For the speech task, only greater self-discrepancy in prototypical masculine traits predicted poorer performance ratings, and it was related to greater state anxiety in anticipation of the task. Conclusion: For HSA women, psychosocial factors may play different roles in social anxiety across social contexts.     

Better Late than Never? The Relationship between Ratings of Attendance,Punctuality, and Overall Job Performance among Nursing Home Employees

This study examined the relationship between lateness, absenteeism, and overall job performance among nursing home employees. We addressed four issues: (a) agreement between subordinate and superior in their ratings, (b) the stability of rated lateness and rated absenteeism over 6 months, (c) the correlation between ratings of lateness and absenteeism assigned by the worker to himself or herself and the corresponding ratings from supervisors, and (d) the relationship of rated lateness and rated absenteeism to impressions of overall job performance. Neither attendance nor punctuality showed inter‐rater agreement between the worker and his/her supervisor on either of the two occasions. Ratings of attendance were not stable across time for either the subordinate (r=.16) or the supervisor (r=.04), but punctuality ratings showed moderate temporal stability over 6 months for both subordinate (r=.59) and supervisor (r=. 41) impressions. On the first administration of the rating form, attendance and punctuality were not significantly correlated to each other in either the workers' self‐ratings (r=.17) nor the supervisors' ratings of the workers (r=.08). On the second administration, however, these two facets were moderately correlated with each other in both workers' (r=.54) and supervisors' (r=. 39) impressions of employee behavior. Compared with attendance, punctuality was somewhat more highly correlated with impressions of overall job performance from the perspective of the worker herself/himself as well as the supervisor.     

Terror Management and Personality: Variations in the Psychological Defense Against the Awareness of Mortality

Drawing on terror management theory (TMT), we discuss the psychological motivations that shape personality at two levels: the characteristically human personality common to us all and the individual differences that distinguish some people from others. TMT posits that the motivation to protect the self against deep-rooted fears about mortality drives people to maintain meaningful, reliable conceptions of reality and positive evaluations of themselves, two broad tendencies that form the foundation of every person’s personality. We review studies showing that mortality reminders increase efforts to bolster cultural sources of meaning and self-esteem in similar ways across individuals and cultures. TMT also posits that individual differences in personality partly reflect the different sources of meaning and self-esteem that people invest in to assuage mortality fears. We review evidence that individual differences predict the degree and direction of people’s defensive responses to mortality reminders. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Five-factor personality traits and age trajectories of self-rated health: the role of question framing

We examined the influence of personality traits on mean levels and age trends in 4 single‐item measures of self‐rated health: general rating, comparison to age peers, comparison to past health, and expectations for future health. Community‐dwelling participants (N = 1,683) completed 7,474 self‐rated health assessments over a period of up to 19 years. In hierarchical linear modeling analyses, age‐associated declines differed across the 4 health items. Across age groups, high Neuroticism and low Conscientiousness, low Extraversion, and low Openness were associated with worse health ratings, with notable differences across the 4 health items. Furthermore, high Neuroticism predicted steeper declines in health ratings involving temporal comparisons. We consider theoretical implications regarding the mechanisms behind associations among personality traits and self‐rated health.     

Ratings of physical attractiveness within young,romantically engaged couples in Malaysia

This study examined the matching hypothesis, the positive illusions effect and the love is blind bias in young, romantically engaged couples in Malaysia. Each member of 58 young, romantically engaged heterosexual couples completed the Body Esteem Scale and items assessing physical attractiveness in relation to themselves and their partner. In support of the matching hypothesis, partners' perceptions of their own and their partner's facial and bodily attractiveness were significantly correlated. The positive illusions effect and the love is blind bias were also evident, with participants' ratings of partners being greater than both their own self‐ratings and their partner's self‐ratings of physical attractiveness. Although our findings suggest that these phenomena related to perceptions of physical attractiveness are evident across cultures, further studies are required.