Intersectionality of Race/Ethnicity and Gender Among Women of Color and White Women

Theoretical writings on intersectionality have long emphasized the unique ways women of color experience race/ethnicity and gender, particularly compared to White women; however, little empirical evidence exists in support of this claim. This mixed-methods study adds to the empirical base by comparing and contrasting these experiences among women of color and White women. In a sample of 47 women of color and 18 White women, there were significant racial/ethnic differences in terms of (a) the perceived connection of race/ethnicity and gender, (b) the social contexts in which gender becomes salient, and (c) the meaningfulness of the intersection of race/ethnicity and gender. The findings lend empirical support for intersectionality as a useful psychological framework for understanding multiple social identities.     

Myths and stereotypes of actors involved in domestic violence: Implications for domestic violence culpability attributions

Stereotypes exist about actors involved in domestic violence, particularly women of color. It has been suggested that Black women are more aggressive and accustomed to violence than White women. Moreover, victim resistance, marital status, and perceiver’s sex have all been found to influence perceptions of domestic violence culpability. Since the 1970s, when domestic violence was acknowledged as a social problem, researchers have examined how the lay person’s perceptions of battered women and their batterers are influenced by extralegal factors. Although research on perceptions of domestic violence when White women and men are involved has increased dramatically in recent years, there is a dearth of research on perceptions of such violence when women and men of color are participants. The available findings on the influence of stereotypical notions concerning victims and batterers upon perceptions of domestic violence are examined. This review will provide the available evidence and suggest research areas where information is needed to more fully address the needs of people of color in understanding their own victimization and how actors in the legal system can guard against biased responding.     

Addressing Diversity in the Decade of Behavior: Focus on Women of Color

The Decade of Behavior provides an opportunity to reflect on the need for psychologists to develop a "diversity mindfulness" in their education, training, and research activities, a need that has never been more urgent. In this article, we focus on the lives of women of color to illustrate diversity-mindful feminist principles that may inform research and program development related to other aspects of diversity. We discuss perspectives and priorities of women of color in psychology. We consider why implementing feminist psychology's inclusive vision for research is a continuing struggle, particularly with regard to research on poor women, and identify some contributions and priorities of feminist research on women of color that relate to Decade goals of achieving a "safer, better educated, healthier, more democratic and more prosperous nation" (White, Travis, & Russo, 2001, p. x). Understanding and incorporating perspectives of women of color in Decade activities is essential if researchers are to generate new knowledge "to prepare the world for facing emerging problems in the 21st century" (Decade of Behavior website: http://www.decadeofbehavior.org).     

Performance Involvement,Identity, and Emotion Among Cisgender Male Drag Queens

Quantitative research on levels of depression and gender dysphoria in drag populations is lacking. It is possible that this lack occurs because researchers tend to include drag queens within transgender samples. Such sampling practices may result in inaccurate assumptions about drag queen populations. This study established rates of depression and gender dysphoria in a sample of self-identified cisgender drag queens. Participants reported low levels of gender dysphoria and significantly lower levels of depression than have been found among trans women, however, these participants presented with higher rates of depression than have been found among gay men who do not perform drag. Higher rates of involvement in drag performance were positively correlated with depression and negatively correlated with gender dysphoria. Results indicate that self-identified cisgender drag queens are unlikely to experience gender dysphoria and are less depressed than samples of trans women. The researchers discuss implications and future directions for mental health practitioners.     

Gender‐of‐author differences in study design of older adult friendship surveys

This research extends literature documenting gender differences in choice of quantitative or qualitative methods by examining whether men and women make different decisions regarding study design within one type of quantitative method—survey research. The population consists of 117 surveys (1960–1999) of older adults about friendship. We find that the use of communal methods, especially by women scholars, increased over time, and researchers who are women are more likely to use “communal” survey methods than researchers who are men. The gender difference in use of communal methods is not necessarily explained by essential differences between men and women or even by gender differences in commitment to feminist research as previous scholars have argued; rather, it is possibly explained by structured differences in access to resources to do agentic research.     

How deep is skin‐deep? The relationship between skin color satisfaction,estimation of body image,and self‐esteem among women of African descent

The study of skin color and its relationship to body (dis)satisfaction and self‐esteem is critical to expanding upon the research that explores the intersection between body image and the sociocultural experience of women of the African diaspora. To this end, the relationships between skin color satisfaction, body dissatisfaction, and self‐esteem were examined in a sample of 328 women of African descent. Results revealed a significant effect for ethnicity and employment status on body dissatisfaction, skin color satisfaction, and self‐esteem. Follow‐up analyses revealed that Afro‐Caribbean women were the most satisfied with their body shape, biracial women were most satisfied with their skin color, and women who self‐identified as professionals had the highest self‐esteem. Implications for the findings are discussed.     

Applications of social cognitive theory to the career development of women of color

This article provides a review of the literature on the educational and career development of women of color within the context of social cognitive career theory (Lent, et al, 1994 and Lent, et al, 1996). Specifically, possible gender, ethnic, racial, and cultural influences on career self-efficacy and outcome expectations are explored to delinate the potential mechanisms whereby ethnicity, culture, and ethnic and racial identity development, in interaction with gender, affect career choice and adjustment. Suggestions for future research on social cognitive career theory and the career development of women of color are presented.     

FOCUSING ON PARTICIPANTS

This article presents a model developed and assessed by a women's health research team to enhance sensitivity and increase readability of a survey to be used with community-based women. The survey consisted of quantitative measures of AIDS-related attitudes and behaviors, developed and used with traditional-aged college populations, and included questions of a highly personal nature. In Study 1, 30 women with English reading levels of third grade and above from two targeted community populations completed a survey in two waves of focus groups and gave feedback about readability, length, format, content, emotional responses, truthfulness in responding, and opinions about the research. Problem areas and changes that made the survey more readable, understandable, emotionally sensitive, and effective are reviewed. In Study 2, pre- and postmodification versions of nine scales are compared in 430 traditional-aged college women (pre) and 793 community-based women (post), the latter broken into subsamples for more refined comparisons. Results of five psychometric analyses demonstrate that psychometric integrity does not have to be hurt by such changes. In addition, this process illustrates how researchers can gain a better understanding of participants and their reactions to the research process through qualitative research methods.     

Why Fat is a Feminist Issue

The proposition that fat is a feminist issue is almost an axiom within the feminist literature. And yet, different feminist scholars see fat as a feminist issue for radically different reasons. An analysis of mainly U.S. research suggests that for some, fat is a symptom of underlying distress and compulsive eating as a coping mechanism for this gendered anguish. For others, higher rates of “obesity” among poor women and women of color is a scandalous form of environmental injustice necessitating policy interventions to combat obesity in these populations. Others have argued that fat is a feminist issue because the fear of being or becoming fat tyrannizes average-size and relatively thin women, limiting their quality of life and often leading to eating disorders. In contrast, Fikkan and Rothblum (2011) argue that fat is a feminist issue because fat women are subjugated to bias, discrimination and abuse precisely because they are fat women. Unlike other approaches, they put actual fat women at the heart of their analysis, comparing their experience to that of both thin women and to fat men. They rightly signal the importance of examining how the social experiences of fat people vary by sex, social class, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation, among other factors. While emphasizing the importance of their perspective, this article advocates that this line of feminist analysis be pushed even further.     

Multicultural psychology: bringing together gender and ethnicity

This article suggests that just as gender studies should not proceed without consideration of the various contexts in which men and women behave, similarly multicultural psychology should recognize gender, among other characteristics in the populations examined. Focusing on ethnic group women, who are understudied, develops this theme. Two arguments are proposed: (a) that gender must be recognized as impinging on every aspect of psychological research and practice, and (b) that gender should be considered an aspect of culture, just as ethnicity now is. The literature in psychology is reviewed to demonstrate how erroneous beliefs and exclusion operate to minimize examination of ethnicity and gender. Finally, a call to advocacy is made for attention to complexity.     

Social class as a correlate of gender identity among lesbian women

Traditionally, researchers have portrayed butch and femme identities among lesbian women as gender roles. To complicate matters, rather than ask lesbian women to define butch and femme within the context of their own culture, researchers defined the terms themselves. This study adds to the literature in two ways: (1) lesbian women are asked to define butch and femme on their own terms and (2) social class is considered as a correlate to the formation of butch and femme gender identities. A snowball sample of 235 women participated in the study. Ninety-three percent of the participants are white, 7% are women of color. Social classes, as measured by income and education, are diverse within the sample. Findings indicate that lesbian women define butch and femme differently than have researchers, and that social class is a significant determinant of whether or not a lesbian woman defines herself as butch or femme.Part of this paper was presented at the American Sociological Association 1995 Annual Meeting in Washington, DC. I thank Dr. Leonard Beeghley and two anonymousSex Roles reviewers for their valuable comments on earlier drafts.     

颜色偏好的性别差异研究进展

颜色偏好是人在心理上所喜爱或偏好的颜色,性别是影响颜色偏好的重要因素之一。本文区分一般人群和特殊人群,结合不同的心理发展阶段,评述对抽象颜色和具体物色的偏好的性别差异研究进展,具体比较了打猎者-采摘者理论、视锥-对立对比成分理论、性别图式理论以及生态效价理论等,并且讨论分析了以往研究者在内容和理论解释等方面存在的不足。未来研究者应采用多元化的方法,深入探索颜色偏好性别差异的机制,期望整合得到解释力更强的理论观点。     

Putting Parenting in Perspective: A Discussion of the Contextual Factors That Shape Parenting Practices

Child and family researchers have long recognized parenting as making an important contribution to child development. However, little is known about the factors that shape parenting itself, particularly factors outside the family. This article examines the literature on variables that comprise the context in which parenting occurs, and summarizes what is known about how three contextual factors (ethnicity/culture, family socioeconomic status, and neighborhood/community) influence parenting practices. Implications for future research on parenting, clinical interventions designed to improve parenting, and policy decisions affecting parenting are discussed.     

信任水平存在性别差异吗?

信任水平是否存在性别差异, 学界观点莫衷一是。一派研究者持信任水平性别差异观, 其中风险偏好理论被用于佐证男性信任水平更高的观点, 女性在亲社会领域的优势则为女性具备更高信任水平提供支持; 另有一派研究者以性别相似性假设为依据, 持信任水平无性别差异观。两派观点及其理论基础虽得到一定程度支持, 但还有待从研究范式、东西方文化差异等角度阐明其合理性。未来研究可在合理运用信任测量方法的基础上, 澄清信任动态变化过程中的性别特征, 深化两性信任差异的神经生理机制研究, 从而更好地揭示信任水平的性别差异问题。     

Social Class, Race, and Ethnicity: Career Interventions for Women Domestic Violence Survivors

This story describes a community intervention study conducted with women domestic violence survivors and a research dilemma related to the complex interrelationships between women's social class, race and ethnicity, and career development needs and experiences. The author presents diversity and research dilemmas related to facilitating women's critical consciousness of power dynamics at work in their lives. The influence of community context, career intervention curricula, and research team members' values on research decisions are described. This story highlights the importance of researchers examining their values and how those values impact the communities that they serve.     

Memory Development or the Development of Memory?

For 30 years, the question "What is memory development the development of?" has guided research on children's memory. As theories and research paradigms have evolved over this period, so too has knowledge of the surprising mnemonic competence of young children and of age-related differences in memory performance. Never the less, there are serious limits to current understanding of the development of memory. Indeed, there have been few investigations of changes over time in the memory skills of individual children, and researchers have yet to shed much light on the more difficult question of "What are the forces that propel the development of skilled remembering?" From our perspective, the answer to this question will require movement toward longitudinal research designs that illuminate the mechanisms that bring about developmental change.     

Sexual Harassment and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among Asian and White Women

Sexual harassment is a prevalent problem that has been associated with negative psychological and physical health outcomes. Although sexual harassment has been linked to posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, little is known about how PTS symptoms that arose from sexual harassment experiences might be associated with psychological and physical health. This study examined the associations among sexual harassment, PTS symptoms, and psychological and physical well-being in a sample of Asian and White women. In addition, given the lack of research on sexual harassment among Asian women, we investigated the moderating role of ethnicity. Results indicated that greater sexual harassment frequency and PTS symptom severity predicted more depression, overall psychological distress, and physical symptoms. PTS symptom severity and ethnicity moderated the relationship between sexual harassment frequency and physical symptoms. We discuss the implications of these findings and directions for further research.     

Relation of ethnicity and age to women's responses to personal experiences of sexist discrimination in the United States

The authors explored self-reported experiences of interpersonal sexist discrimination and responses to such incidents in a heterogeneous sample of 262 women in the northeastern United States. They divided the sample into 2 categories for age (< 30 years, > 30 years) and for ethnicity (women of color, European American women). Across categories of age and ethnicity, the participants (a) commonly experienced sexist discrimination and (b) viewed men as the primary perpetrators of the discrimination. Although the women's reports of sexist experiences were similar for the most part, the authors found significant age differences in the frequency of categories of sexist events and in specific events, as well as in some general responses to such incidents. Ethnicity, operationalized here as women of color and European American women, did not have a significant influence.     

The challenge of measuring immigrant origin and immigration-related ethnicity in Europe

Different European nation-states use the most diverse statistical constructions of foreign origin or ethnic minority populations. Several countries traditionally even shun from producing such data. This makes international comparison a very difficult endeavour. Anyone wanting to perform comparative research on immigrants or (immigrant origin) ethnic minorities in Europe is unavoidably confronted with the most diverse types of national statistical data and has to opt for ad hoc solutions. Attempts at international comparison can thus be very tricky due to data characteristics. It is important that researchers are aware of these problems and do not simply accept data (especially in comparisons) at face value. In this article we embark on a comparative explorative study of the way in which immigrant background and immigration related ethnicity is taken stock of by national statistical institutes in a set of European nation-states.