Understanding physical activity in individuals with prediabetes: an application of social cognitive theory

Despite well-documented evidence implicating physical activity (PA) in the prevention of type 2 diabetes, the overwhelming majority of individuals with prediabetes are not physically active enough. The purpose of this study was to investigate the applicability of the social cognitive theory (SCT) in understanding PA behaviour in individuals with prediabetes. Individuals with prediabetes (N = 232) completed a mailed questionnaire assessing demographics, self-reported PA (MET.min/wk) and SCT constructs for PA MET.min/wk. For PA MET.min/wk, scheduling and task efficacy both had significant effects on PA (β = .30 and .22, respectively). Goal formation also had a direct effect on PA for scheduling, coping and task efficacy (β = .20, .34 and .30, respectively). Task, coping and scheduling efficacy explained a significant portion of the variance in PA behaviour. Overall, SCT appears to have merit as a model for understanding PA in individuals with prediabetes. Further evaluative inquiry is needed to establish support for the use of the SCT as a framework for developing, implementing and evaluating PA behaviour change interventions in this population.     

Sensitivity of the informant questionnaire on cognitive decline: an application of item response theory

The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline (IQCODE) is a formal informant report instrument, originally developed by Jorm and Jacomb (1989; Psychological Medicine, 19(4), 1015). The goal of the present study was to evaluate the range of cognitive decline in which the IQCODE is most sensitive, using item response theory (IRT). Existing data (N = 740) from a sample of community-dwelling older adults was used for this purpose. A 2-parameter model estimating item difficulty and discrimination fit the data best. Additionally, the IQCODE provided the most psychometric information in the range of -0.5 < theta < 1.5, with peak information obtained at approximately theta = 0.4. Based on individuals' latent score (theta) estimates, items on the IQCODE are adequate for use as a screening tool for dementia. Results of the item calibration may be useful for targeted assessment needs, such as the development of short forms.     

A category theory approach to cognitive development

The category theory concept of a commutative diagram is used to construct a model of the way in which symbolic processes are applied to problem solving. The model provides for a relationship between symbolic processes and the problem which depends on structural isomorphism and consistency, but is independent of similarity between symbol elements and problem elements. It is then shown that several different levels of thought can be distinguished within the basic model. More information is needed to assign symbolic processes to a problem in a consistent way with higher-level thought processes than with lower-level processes. These information-processing requirements permit the approximate age of mastery of each level to be predicted, thereby offering an alternate theory of cognitive developmental stages. Two experiments designed to test the theory are reported.     

The application of cognitive dissonance theory to consultation

Despite the importance of the consultation role for the school psychologist, the current literature on consultation has little to offer the practitioner in terms of empirically-based consultation strategies. This paper views consultation as, at least in part, a persuasive process. Cognitive dissonance theory is an extensively researched social psychological theory that predicts when a particular persuasive attempt will be successful and which has implications for consultation.

This article summarizes those aspects of dissonance theory that are most relevant to consultation, reviews the corresponding experimental support, and suggests practical applications of dissonance research and theory to consultation. Because these applications are extrapolations from research outside of consultation, they are viewed as hypotheses.     

Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation

Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people's daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.     

Contributions of dynamic systems theory to cognitive development

We examine the contributions of dynamic systems theory to the field of cognitive development, focusing on modeling using dynamic neural fields. After introducing central concepts of dynamic field theory (DFT), we probe empirical predictions and findings around two examples—the DFT of infant perseverative reaching that explains Piaget's A-not-B error and the DFT of spatial memory that explain changes in spatial cognition in early development. Review of the literature around these examples reveals that computational modeling is having an impact on empirical research in cognitive development; however, this impact does not extend to neural and clinical research. Moreover, there is a tendency for researchers to interpret models narrowly, anchoring them to specific tasks. We conclude on an optimistic note, encouraging both theoreticians and experimentalists to work toward a more theory-driven future.     

Existence in time: development or catastrophe

The experience of existing in time is closely bound up with the phenomenology of the depressive position and, as such, represents a major developmental achievement. However, for some patients, awareness of time and their place in it is felt not as offering the possibility of development, but instead is dreaded as an imminent catastrophe that has to be evaded. This is achieved through the creation of an illusory timeless world, which, although offering some relief compounds the feeling of threat. The author draws on material from Oscar Wilde's novel The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) and on clinical material from a psychoanalysis to illustrate the attractions and dangers of life in this illusory world, where the "picture in the attic" represents the threat that can never be fully faced nor fully erased. The link between the awareness of time passing and the capacity to mourn is discussed in relation to Freud's paper "On Transience" (1916), which in the author's view anticipates certain features of the depressive position as described by Klein (1935, 1940). The author makes further observations on the relation between instantiation in time, which brings a world of causes and consequences, as well as the capacity for bearing guilt.     

Bilingualism and cognitive development in relation to threshold theory

A study was conducted to examine the relationship between bilingualism and cognitive development, as predicted by threshold theory. This theory maintains that there may be levels of linguistic proficiency which bilingual children must attain in order to avoid cognitive deficits and to allow the cognitive benefits. On the whole, the results were consistent with the theory, in that an overall bilingual superiority was found only for those children who had attained a high degree of bilingualism. An overall bilingual superiority was not found for those children who had attained lower degrees of bilingualism. These results are discussed further in relation to Bialystok's model.The author is indebted to G. Tyson for valuable comments on an earlier version of this paper.     

Rock's cognitive theory of illusory figures: a commentary.

Contrary to a previously published opinion, the 'cognitive' theory of illusory contours is rich in detail and empirical support.     

Dissecting the expanded cognitive reflection test: an item response theory analysis

This study presents a psychometric evaluation of the Expanded Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT7) based on item response theory. The participants (N?=?1204) completed the CRT7 and provided self-reported information about their cognitive styles through the Preference for Intuition and Deliberation Scale (PID). A two-parameter logistic model was fitted to the data to obtain the item difficulty and discrimination parameters of the CRT7. The results showed that the items had good discriminatory power (αs?=?.80 ? 2.92), but the range of difficulty was restricted (βs ranged from ?.60 to .32). Moreover, the CRT7 showed a pattern of correlations with the PID which was similar to that of the original CRT. When taken together, these results are evidence of the adequacy of the CRT7 as an expanded tool for measuring cognitive reflection; however, one of the newer items (the pig item) was consistently problematic across analyses, and so it is recommended that in future studies it should be removed from the CRT7.     

Sequential development of cognitive complexity.

It has been demonstrated by Bieri and others that cognitive complexity is a meaningful personality construct for adults and older adolescents. The present study investigated by use of the Adapted Modified Role Repertory Test and the Modified Role Repertory Test possible developmental change in a child's system of role constructs, i.e., a child's ability to construe social behavior in a multi-dimensional way. Subjects were 90 third, 99 fifth, 90 seventh, and 89 ninth grade children, and 83 adults. Data suggest that with time a child's system of constructs becomes more differentiated. Therefore, development is accompanied by greater cognitive complexity.     

Understanding supplement use: an application of temporal self-regulation theory

Vitamin and mineral supplement use is increasing worldwide. As evidence of the effects of these practices are equivocal at best, it is important to determine why individuals engage in vitamin and mineral supplement use through the application of a theoretical framework. The aim of this study was to employ temporal self-regulation theory (TST) to establish the determinants of supplement use. A cross-sectional design was used with a sample of 121 individuals who consume vitamins or minerals as dietary supplements. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the influence of intention, habit, self-control, and the interaction between intention and habit and self-control on the frequency of supplement use. The model accounted for a significant proportion of variance in behaviour (R² = .44) with intention and habit significantly related to supplement use. Self-control moderated the relationship between intention and behaviour indicating that intention was not related to behaviour when self-control was low. The TST model offers a satisfactory account of supplement use and provides avenues for interventions aimed at increasing safe and beneficial supplement use and decreasing potentially harmful supplement use.     

Examining cognitive development from a conceptual change point of view: The framework theory approach

Sexual socialization refers to how, through social interaction, an individual acquires and internalizes culture-specific knowledge, values and attitudes about sexuality. Little, however, is known about how an individual's genetic characteristics modify this process, or if individuals gravitate towards specific environments according to their genetic characteristics. The aim was to explore whether adolescents' genetic predispositions modify environmental influences on peer-group sexual attitudes. Using a Finnish population-based sample of twins and their siblings (n = 9534), it was found that genetic effects influenced peer-group sexual attitudes in men (52%) and women (46%), thus offering evidence for gene–environment correlation. Men showed less restricted peer-group sexual attitudes than women. Some indications of different genes influencing environmental exposure in men and women were found.     

Thai Buddhism and well-being: an application of stress process theory

The purpose of this study was to explore how Buddhism is associated with well-being among Thai Buddhists via an application of stress process theory. Survey data were collected in 2012 from 314 Thai citizens and analysed with structural equation modelling to assess how the association between socio-economic status (SES) and well-being is mediated by stressors and resources, in particular, religious resources. The results reveal that low SES is associated with greater financial hardship and household crowding and lower sense of control, which in turn are associated with worse well-being. Furthermore, income is associated with happiness via belief in Dharma control, whereas education is associated with unhappiness via its negative association with public religiosity. Lastly, the positive influence of religious beliefs on well-being is contingent upon having a relatively high sense of control, whereas the positive influence of religious behaviours is contingent upon having a relatively low sense of control.     

Weeping: Evidence for a cognitive theory

According to a two-factor cognitive theory of weeping, schema-incongruent information and efforts to assimilate it create arousal; resolution, giving up of the schema, and cessation of the assimilation efforts result in arousal reduction and may be associated with emotional tears. To assess these predictions, female subjects were shown an emotional film under one of two conditions. In one condition only schema-induction and incongruity phases were viewed, while the other condition viewed the complete film (i.e., schema-induction, incongruity, and resolution). Consistent with expectations, incongruity was associated with increased stress and depressed mood. Only subjects who viewed the complete film reported significant decreases in these states. The final scene, assumed to trigger schema change, produced the greatest amount of weeping.This paper is adapted from a portion of a doctoral dissertation conducted by the first author. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Walter Katkovsky and Raymond Ditrichs. A version of this paper was presented at a meeting of the Western Psychological Association, May 1986.