Family Sessions as Part of Child Psychological Assessment: Goals,Techniques, Clinical Utility,and Therapeutic Value

Including a family session in a child assessment can significantly advance the assessor's and parents' understanding of the child's problems and enhance the likelihood that parents will follow through on recommendations after the assessment. A family session allows the assessor to observe the child in the family context, test systemic hypotheses, better understand the meaning of individual test results, and try out possible interventions. A family session may also help parents see systemic aspects of their child's problems, help the child feel less blamed, foster positive experiences among family members, and offer the family a glimpse of family therapy. We describe methods and techniques for structuring family sessions and offer guidance on preparing for and conducting such sessions depending on one's case conceptualization. Detailed case examples illustrate each technique and demonstrate the immediate and subsequent impact of family sessions as well as their therapeutic value. We also address common clinical and pragmatic issues.     

Vicarious and post‐memory practices in adopting families: The re‐production of the past through photography and narrative

In this paper, we explore how adoptive parents manage and order visual information relating to their adoptive child's birth or foster family. More specifically, our task is to make sense of the ways in which the memories that children have of their past families are (re)constructed and managed within the context of present adoptive parental concerns. Life story books have become a dominant way in which narratives of the child's past family are formed. The aim of this book is to provide the child with relevant information, objects, possessions and images of the past and to create a coherent narrative between the past and the present. Parents are encouraged to make use of visual images, consisting mainly of photographs of birth families and foster carers to order the autobiography of the child. To date, there is no research that has examined how the process is experienced by parents and children. In order to examine how parents made use of visual information in particular, we carried out two focus groups with adoptive parents who participated in an adoption agency support group. A social remembering approach informed the questions asked, and a discursive analysis of the data was developed. The main analytical focus in this paper is on how photographs, objects and places serve as active participants in the production of the adoptive children's memory. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

“Honey, you’re jumping about”—Mothers’ scaffolding of their children's and adolescents’ life narration

Research on mother–child reminiscing as a socializing practice for autobiographical memory is extended from early childhood and the narrating of single events to adolescence and the narrating of an entire life story. To explore whether the development of the life story in adolescence depends on qualities of the narrator or on the brevity of the narrated life, and whether mothers adapt their scaffolding strategies in co-narrations of the child's life to the child's zone of proximal development, 16 mother–child pairs (child's ages 8, 12, 16, and 20 years) both co-narrated and individually narrated the child's life. As expected, only the coherence of the children's, but not the mothers’, narratives varied with the child's age. Also, mothers supported temporal structuring more in younger children and arguments about personality and its development more in adolescents.     

Seeing,sitting and lying down: Reflections on the role of visual communication in analytic therapy

The paper develops the post-Winnicottian psychoanalyst Kenneth Wright's theory of the face which he sees as insufficiently theorized psychoanalytically. As compared with the breast, the face is intrinsically a vehicle for generating meaning and representation, rather than satisfying bodily need. Infants see themselves reflected back in the mother's facial expressions and this helps to build up self-representation in the child's mind's eye. Other Attachment-influenced research findings about care-giver/infant facial communication are also described: partial contingency, triangulation and rupture/repair. The relevance of this to the question of chair or couch-based therapy is discussed. The discussion is illustrated by a consideration of the work of the visual artist Louise Bourgeois.     

Parental Cognitive Errors Mediate Parental Psychopathology and Ratings of Child Inattention

We investigate the Depression‐Distortion Hypothesis in a sample of 199 school‐aged children with ADHD‐Predominantly Inattentive presentation (ADHD‐I) by examining relations and cross‐sectional mediational pathways between parental characteristics (i.e., levels of parental depressive and ADHD symptoms) and parental ratings of child problem behavior (inattention, sluggish cognitive tempo, and functional impairment) via parental cognitive errors. Results demonstrated a positive association between parental factors and parental ratings of inattention, as well as a mediational pathway between parental depressive and ADHD symptoms and parental ratings of inattention via parental cognitive errors. Specifically, higher levels of parental depressive and ADHD symptoms predicted higher levels of cognitive errors, which in turn predicted higher parental ratings of inattention. Findings provide evidence for core tenets of the Depression‐Distortion Hypothesis, which state that parents with high rates of psychopathology hold negative schemas for their child's behavior and subsequently, report their child's behavior as more severe.     

A semistructured interview with parents-to-be used during pregnancy: Preliminary data

The aim of this paper is to describe The Clinical Interview for Parents during Pregnancy (CGG—Colloquio per Genitori in Gravidanza). The interview was developed in the context of a longitudinal research study, carried out in the first 2 years of the child's life. The study was aimed at investigating fathers' attitudes and behavior toward child care and the possible influence of these attitudes and behavior on the child's current and future development. This was also compared with mothers' attitudes and behaviors. This work provides the background rationale for the content of the CGG and the discussion of the interview. The CGG was administered to 90 middle-class Italian couples expecting their first baby, who were recruited from childbirth classes to participate in the study. The sample did not include women at risk during pregnancy. We chose to investigate three areas: couples' ability to foresee their own function after the child's birth; the activities they expected to share with their baby; their capacity to anticipate their child's physical and psychological characteristics. Responses were subjected to quantitative content analysis. We describe the utility of such analysis. Finally, we review clinical and research meanings and applications of the CGG. © 1997 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health     

Primal splitting as a basis for emotional and cognitive development in children

This article discusses the importance of good primal splitting as the basis for the child's emotional and cognitive development. A theoretical introduction analyses the possible pathologies of primal splitting, as they were first pointed out by Melanie Klein and then by some post-Kleinian authors, in particular Donald Meltzer. This is followed by some excerpts from the clinical material of the first year of the psychoanalytic psychotherapy of a three-year-old child suffering from eating problems. Starting from the child's play activity, the author tries to identify the splitting problems that underlie the child's view of the world, and to address these with him. The article shows how at times it can be useful to speak also to the child's intelligence, combining the usual analytic work (containment of anxiety and analysis of transference) with the analysis of the child's distortions and cognitive misconceptions. The article also suggests that faulty primal splitting tends to be transmitted from one generation to the next.     

Feeling one's way in the world: Making a life

This paper argues for the psychoanalytic relevance of the works of James Gibson and Susanne Langer in explicating the early development of the human child and makes use of this combined formulation of development to think about psychoanalytic theory and practice. From the insights of James Gibson's ecological psychology we can appreciate the embodiment and embeddedness of the child's growing mind within both her physical and social environments. Making use of Susanne Langer's concept of feeling to redefine ecological psychology's perceptual counterpart to action allows us to understand the child's seamless transition into active participation in her culture, as she learns to project her animalian capacity to feel into intersubjectively defined forms of behavior and experience with others. The paper presents a lengthy exposition of Gibson's ecological psychology, before explaining Langer's thinking and launching into the combined insights of these scholars to explicate the nature of the child's mind as she feels her way in the world and makes a life for herself within it. This is the life she will be able to remake in the embeddedness of a psychoanalytic therapeutic relationship where she can learn to feel her way in the world in a new light.     

Mothers' insightfulness regarding their children's internal worlds: The capacity underlying secure child–mother relationships

This article introduces a new method to assess mothers' insightfulness regarding their children's inner world. Maternal insightfulness involves the capacity to see things from the child's point of view, and is based on insight into the child's motives, a complex view of the child, and openness to new information about the child. Insightfulness is seen as the capacity underlying positive parenting and providing the context for secure child–parent attachment. In the assessment of insightfulness mothers view video segments of their interactions with their children and are subsequently interviewed regarding their children's and their own thoughts and feelings during the segments. This article describes how the maternal interviews are coded and provides vignettes of both insightful and noninsightful mothers. Empirical findings supporting the validity of the insightfulness assessment are reviewed, and the implications for children's development are discussed. ©2002 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

The relationship of mother–child interaction and the child's development of symbolic play

The extent to which the mother–child interactive relationship either promotes or limits a child's ability to see options or choices in the environment was investigated. It was predicted that this quality of interaction provided primarily by the mother would relate to the child's cognitive development as reflected in his or her level of symbolic play. The level and frequency of symbolic and nonsymbolic play in 30 children, ages 12 to 47 months, were coded and mothers' options‐promoting and options‐limiting behaviors were identified. Children, across this range of ages, whose mothers created an options‐promoting social context were observed engaging in more symbolic play. Nonsymbolic play, however, was not found to be significantly influenced by the mother's interactive style. A child's symbolic play marks a dynamic developmental achievement for the child, and appears to be related to the social context created by the mother's interactive style. ©2003 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.     

Diagnosis and Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Attention‐Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention‐deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) has been estimated to affect between 3% and 5% of school‐age children. The disorder frequently has a profound effect on a child's personal, social and academic development and is a risk factor in the development of other comorbid disorders. Diagnostic criteria and methods for identification of ADHD will be presented. Major intervention strategies appropriate for school and community settings are outlined. Because ADHD is 1 of the most common reasons for referral in both school and community agencies, it is important that clinicians be prepared to provide accurate diagnosis and intervention recommendations.     

Well-being in parents of children with cancer: The impact of parental personality,coping, and the child's quality of life

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of parental personality, coping, and the child's quality of life on the well-being of parents of children treated for cancer. The study included 99 parents (63 mothers and 36 fathers), 41 parents during child's intensive treatment, 23 parents whose child completed intensive treatment, and 25 parents of children who completed treatment at least five years ago. The results of multivariate study have confirmed the predictive role of parental personality (especially Neuroticism); emotion-focused coping styles, and the child's quality of life (especially physical functioning) on parental well-being. About 60% of the variance in parental well-being can be attributed to the predictors. Assessing parental personality functioning and coping styles can help us identify those parents who are less emotionally stable, more prone to emotionally focused coping styles, and most likely to experience poorer well-being. Improved assessment may contribute to the development of further psychological interventions.     

Successful intervention with multi-problem mothers: Effects on the mother-infant relationship

A two-step model of intervention for multi-problem mothers was proposed. In order to improve mother-child interaction and later developmental outcomes, the first step is for the practitioner to help the mother change her external competencies (adult social skills) and internal perceptions (support, depression). These changes make the second step possible—the mother then can learn to foster her own child's development. The model was tested in a study of 95 multi-problem women who participated in a nursing intervention program from mid-pregnancy through the child's first birthday. The results supported the two-step model. Improvements in the mothers' external competencies were related to completion of intervention goals. These external improvements also were related to more optimal patterns of mother-child interaction during teaching and feeding episodes at 1 year. Furthermore, an especially insecure type of attachment relationship was found more frequently among the infants of mothers in the group that did not improve. Changes in internal perceptions were unrelated to intervention or interaction measures. These unexpected results suggest that the mother's internal improvements may have a more delayed or a less direct effect upon the child.     

Parents' Appraisals,Reflected Appraisals,and Children's Self-Appraisals of Sport Competence: A Yearlong Study

This study investigated the contribution of the reflected appraisal process to the ontogeny of children's self-perceptions of physical competence. Emanating from symbolic interactionist thought, reflected appraisals refer to individuals' perceptions of others' evaluations of their abilities. The influence of parents' appraisals of their child's competence on the child's self-appraisals was hypothesized to be mediated by parents' reflected appraisals. Data were collected from a sample of 147 sixth graders and their parents in three waves over one school year. Structural equation modeling revealed that 1) parents' appraisals at Wave 1 influenced children's reflected appraisals of parents at Wave 2; 2) reflected appraisals at Wave 2 influenced children's self-appraisals at Wave 3, controlling for both the child's actual level in sport (as assessed by the child's grade in physical education) and the child's self-appraisals at Wave 1; and 3) the influence of parents' appraisals on their child's self-appraisals was nonsignificant when reflected appraisals were controlled for. This study supported the mediational role of the reflected appraisal process. The findings from this study provide a unique contribution to the sport socialization knowledge base by highlighting the role of the reflected appraisal process in the formation of children's self-appraisals of ability.     

Differing Perceptions of Mothers,Fathers, and children Concerning Children's Academic Performance

This study examined the hypothesis that mothers' views of their child's performance on an academic task are more synchronous with those of their child than are fathers' views. Parents of 30 sixth-grade children were asked to predict their child's memory spans on a recall and a recognition task given to each child. Parents and children were also asked to judge the importance for the child's performance on 10 attribution factors created for use with memory tests. In line with the hypothesis, mothers predicted the child's memory span more accurately than fathers, and the mothers' attributions were more congruent with those of their children. Mothers were also more aware than fathers of the different demands of the two memory tasks. These findings suggest that mothers may be more aware than fathers of their child's academic progress and that mothers' attitudes and expectations may be more influential in determining the child's path of development.     

Saying Goodbye to Our Children: A Phenomenon of Soul-Making

In this article, the author navigates a personal yet common circumstance as a possible experience of soul-making, a concept outlined by James Hillman in his pivotal text Re-Visioning Psychology. Pulling the four moves of personifying, pathologizing, psychologizing, and dehumanizing through the life event of a child's graduating from high school and moving onto college, the author reveals, through the myths of Chronos, Ananke, Demeter, and Persephone, how saying goodbye to our children can deepen our relationship with psyche. The article offers an accessible interpretation of the often heady and conceptual theories of Hillman and describes a process of learning to accept and even come to find love in the inevitability of one's own mortality.     

The Cocreation of Fantasy and the Transformation of Psychic Structure

This author argues that therapeutic action in child psychoanalytic psychotherapy rests with the creation and transformation of fantasy through play, which in turn shifts psychic structure. The paper details the treatment of an eight-year-old girl whose mother's inability to playfully participate in the inner world of her child interfered with the child's development of a fantasy life. The author suggests that the introduction of objective reality (i.e., interpretations that link the child's play with the real world) potentially impinges on and interferes with the transformational processes of fantasy. Developing the capacity to distinguish reality from fantasy does not take place through a forced accommodation to reality, but rather through the expansion of fantasy and a widening of the realm of the imagination. The elaboration of fantasy in concert with a parent or analyst is what builds the child's capacity to differentiate reality from fantasy.     

A Father's response to the birth and death of a multi-handicapped child

The birth of a multi-handicapped child frequently creates a series of unexpected problems for the extended family constellation. This article focuses on the personal responses of a father as he discovers, experiences, and accepts the trauma associated with complex medical interventions designed to preserve the precarious existence of a handicapped child. As the medical procedures ultimately prove to be ineffectual, the impact of the child's death upon the immediate family also is traced in a highly personal manner. Throughout this chronicle, the meaning of pain and love are intertwined in a deepening understanding and appreciation of life.     

Anxious cognitions in children: An exploration of associations and mediators

To investigate sources of influences connecting mothers' and their children's anxious cognitions, 65 children (aged 10 to 11 years) completed self‐report measures of anxiety. Children and mothers responded to an ambiguous scenario questionnaire and measures of parenting style and life events. Mothers also reported expectations about their child's reaction to ambiguous situations. Mothers' and children's threat cognitions were significantly correlated (r = .31), and partially mediated by mothers' expectations about their child. Mothers' anticipated distress was associated with expectations for their child's distress, which was associated with the child's own anticipated distress. Parenting and life events were significantly associated with children's interpretative bias, but did not mediate the intergenerational association in interpretative bias. The results suggest influences on children's ‘anxious cognitive style’ and potential targets for preventing and reducing maladaptive cognitions in children.     

Professionnalisation des assistantes familiales et intérêt de l’enfant accueilli

For 30 years, in France, foster care has been regulated by specific legislation which provides for the professionalization of one of the foster parents – the mother, more often than not. The authors – clinical psychologists – analyse the impact of the last legislation on foster care. A recent law aims to consider foster care as a job like any other, at the risk of underestimating the specificity of this social function, that is, offering to a child in trouble with his own family an ordinary living environment and the “ordinary” parenting skills of foster parents. The authors suggest ways to conceive the professionalization of foster parents in order that it will meet the child's interests and needs.