重复获益效应对文本阅读加工的影响

通过三个实验分析比较同一篇文本前后两次阅读过程中每个句子的阅读时间,探讨汉语文本阅读中的重复获益效应。结果发现（1）汉语文本阅读中存在重复获益效应,并且被试倾向于对没有标题的文章命名;（2）产生重复获益效应的重要因素是在阅读过程中建立良好的情境模型;（3）当前后两篇文本的情境内容高度相关时,主要是情节重复效应影响文本阅读,当情境内容低相关时,抽象重复效应将影响文本的阅读。     

A context-dependent representation model for explaining text repetition effects

The purpose of this article is to review abstract and episodic models of text repetition effects, describe the research supporting these types of models, and propose a new model called thecontextdependent representation model, which can explain both abstract-like and episodic-like repetition effects. The basic assumptions of the model are that the surface form and textbase are represented in a context-independent manner, and a coherent situation model binds together the surface features and the textbase and leads to context-dependent representation. When the situation model is well developed, it limits repetition benefits to semantically or contextually similar texts. This produces contextdependent repetition effects, which are functionally similar to episodic repetition effects. When the situation model is not well developed or not task relevant, repetition benefits are not limited to contextually similar texts. This produces context-independent repetition effects, which are functionally similar to abstract repetition effects. The context-dependent representation model provides a theoretical basis for explaining past research, and it can serve as a guide for future research aimed at understanding text repetition effects as well as text comprehension and memory.     

An Item specific Locus of Repetition Priming

Two principal types of account of repetition priming postulate either facilitation of activation of perceptual representations used in stimulus recognition, or retrieval of specific processing episodes as possible mechanisms by which the effect occurs; these make different predictions concerning the priming of two stimuli presented simultaneously. In Experiments 1-3, subjects made same/different decisions about picture-word stimulus pairs. Recombining the pairings of a subset of items between training and test encounters did not significantly reduce the benefit in response time from repetition, as compared to pairs repeated intact. Subjects were able to remember the pairings (Experiment 4), but this did not influence repetition priming. Instead, the memory representations underlying the priming of each item in a pair were independent. No priming was found between pictures seen at training and words at test, and vice versa (Experiment 5), indicating that representations underlying the repetition effect were domain-specific. In Experiment 6, stimuli were all from within the domain of object pictures. Again, recombining the pairings of items between training and test did not significantly reduce the benefit in response time from repetition, as compared to pairs repeated intact. These results reveal an item-specific locus for repetition priming, consistent with priming occurring within pre-semantic perceptual representation systems involved in item recognition. The findings pose problems for theories that argue that repetition effects result only from retrieval of entire processing episodes.     

Note taking, review, memory, and comprehension

In previous work assessing memory at various levels of representation, namely the surface form, textbase, and situation model levels, participants read texts but were otherwise not actively engaged with the texts. The current study tested the influence of active engagement with the material via note taking, along with the opportunity to review such notes, and the modality of presentation (text vs. spoken). The influence of these manipulations was assessed both immediately and 1 week later. In Experiment 1 participants read a text, whereas in Experiment 2 participants watched a video recording of the material being read as a lecture. For each experiment the opportunity to take notes was manipulated within participants, and the opportunity to review these notes before the test was manipulated between participants. Note taking improved performance at the situation model level in both experiments, although there was also some suggestion of benefit for the surface form. Thus, active engagement with material, such as note taking, appears to have the greatest benefit at the deeper levels of understanding.     

Assessing text representations with recognition: The interaction of domain knowledge and text coherence

Readers construct at least 2 interrelated mental representations when they comprehend a text: a textbase and a situation model. Two experiments were conducted with recognition memory to examine how domain knowledge and text coherence influence readers' textbase and situation-model representations. In Experiment 1, participants made remember-know judgments to text ideas. Knowledge and coherence interacted to influence remember judgments differently than know judgments. In Experiment 2, the authors used the process-dissociation procedure to obtain recollection and familiarity estimates. Knowledge and coherence interacted to influence recollection estimates but not familiarity estimates. The authors claim that recollection and familiarity can be used as markers of the different processes involved in constructing a textbase and a situation model.     

Is a pre-change object representation weakened under correct detection of a change?

We investigated whether a pre-change representation is inhibited or weakened under correct change detection. Two arrays of six objects were rapidly presented for change detection in three experiments. After detection, the perceptual identification of degraded stimuli was tested in Experiments 1 and 2. The weakening of a pre-change representation was not observed under correct detection. The repetition priming effect was observed for a pre-change object and the magnitude was equivalent to the effect for a post-change object. Under change blindness, repetition priming for a pre-change representation was observed when detection did not require report of location in Experiment 1 and was not observed when location was required to be reported in Experiment 2. The results of Experiment 3 showed that a pre-change representation was recognized at a higher rate under correct detection than under change blindness, reflecting a stronger rather than a weaker pre-change representation in the former context.     

说明文阅读中因果序列的表征

结合自定步调阅读与句子启动再认范式, 探讨说明文阅读过程中因果序列的表征问题。研究包括3个实验, 实验1的文本提供一个包括4个概念的因果链(如, A－B－C－D), 文本最后设置包含概念A或概念B或概念C的句子, 对概念D进行探测, 结果发现, 对于概念D的再认启动作用, 概念C＞概念B＞概念A; 实验2改变因果链的说明顺序, 使之与因果链本身次序不一致, 结果与实验1一致; 实验3的文本分别介绍两条独立的因果链(如A－B－C; D－E－F), 最后呈现包含概念A或概念D的句子, 对概念C进行探测, 结果发现, 包含概念A的句子理解启动了相关因果链, 使读者对随后呈现的概念C的再认反应加快。基于本研究结果, 结合相关研究, 本文尝试提出说明文文本表征的建构模式。     

Individual differences in phonological learning and verbal STM span

A relationship between phonological short-term memory tasks (e.g., nonword repetition, digit span) and vocabulary learning in both experimental and real-life conditions has been reported in numerous studies. A mechanism that would explain this correlation is, however, not known. The present study explores the possibility that it is the quality of phonological representations that affects both short-term recall and long-term learning of novel wordlike items. In Experiment 1, groups with relatively good and poor span for pseudowords were established. The good group was found to perform better at explicit memory tasks tapping the incidental learning of a limited stimulus pool used in an auditory immediate serial pseudoword recall task. In Experiment 2, the results of Experiment 1 were replicated when experience of correct recall was controlled. In Experiment 3, the immediate recall performance of the good group was found to benefit more than that of the poor group from syllable repetition within stimulus pools. It is concluded that the efficiency of a process that creates phonological representations is related both to short-term capacity for verbal items, and to long-term phonological learning of the structure of novel phonological items.     

The propositional structure of discourse in the two cerebral hemispheres

Readers construct at least two interrelated representations when they comprehend a text: (a) a representation of the explicit ideas in a text and the relations among them (i.e., a propositional representation) and (b) a representation of the context or situation to which a text refers (i.e., a discourse model). In a recent study, found evidence that readers' representations were structured according to propositional relations, but only in the left hemisphere. Both hemispheres, however, appeared to represent contextually relevant semantic information. The goal in the current study was to examine further the organization of explicit text concepts in the two hemispheres. We used an item-priming-in-recognition paradigm in combination with a lateralized visual-field manipulation. We found evidence for a propositionally structured representation in the left hemisphere, that is, priming effects that reflected the linear distance between primes and targets in the propositional structure of passages. We also found that the right hemisphere represented explicit text concepts, but we found no evidence that these concepts were organized structurally. In a second experiment, we found our item priming effects reflected the representation of text information in memory and did not reflect lexical-semantic priming at test.     

Dissociation of semantic priming, word and non-word repetition effects by event-related potentials

Two experiments investigated the modulation of event-related potentials (ERPs) by semantic priming and item repetition. In Experiment 1, subjects silently counted occasional non-words against a background of words, a proportion of which were either semantic associates or repetitions of a preceding word. Compared to control items, ERPs to repeated words were distinguished by an early (ca. 200 msec) transient negative-going deflection and a later, topographically widespread and temporally sustained positive-going shift. In contrast, semantically primed words showed a relatively small, topographically and temporally limited positive-going modulation peaking around 500 msec. These data were interpreted as evidence against models of priming and repetition which postulate similar loci for these effects. In Experiment 2, subjects counted occasional words against a background of non-words, some of which were repeated. ERPs to repetitions showed a similar early ERP modulation to that in Experiment 1, and also displayed a later slow positive shift. This latter effect was smaller in magnitude and had a delayed onset in comparison to Experiment 1. It was concluded that the effects of repetition differ as a consequence of whether, prior to their first presentation, items possess a representation in lexical memory.     

The level-of-focal-attention hypothesis in oral reading: influence of strategies on the context specificity of lexical repetition effects.

Two experiments examined the influence of level of focal attention--text or lexical--on benefits from lexical repetition in speeded oral reading of coherent texts and random word lists. Experiment 1 showed that with coherent targets, direction of attention to the text level resulted in benefit only from a previous reading of the same coherent paragraph. However, when attention was directed to the lexical level, equal benefit resulted from a previous reading of either the same coherent paragraph or a scrambled version of the paragraph. Experiment 2 showed that level of focal attention did not influence benefit with scrambled targets. Thus, the linguistic structure of the target is important to repetition benefits and their modulation by attentional strategies.     

Subliminal access to abstract face representations does not rely on attention

The present study used masked repetition priming to examine whether face representations can be accessed without attention. Two experiments using a face recognition task (fame judgement) presented masked repetition and control primes in spatially unattended locations prior to target onset. Experiment 1 (n=20) used the same images as primes and as targets and Experiment 2 (n=17) used different images of the same individual as primes and targets. Repetition priming was observed across both experiments regardless of whether spatial attention was cued to the location of the prime. Priming occurred for both famous and non-famous targets in Experiment 1 but was only reliable for famous targets in Experiment 2, suggesting that priming in Experiment 1 indexed access to view-specific representations whereas priming in Experiment 2 indexed access to view-invariant, abstract representations. Overall, the results indicate that subliminal access to abstract face representations does not rely on attention.     

Repetition blindness for novel objects

When visual stimuli (letters, words or pictures of objects) are presented sequentially at high rates (8–12 items/s), observers have difficulty in detecting and reporting both occurrences of a repeated item: This is repetition blindness. Two experiments investigated the effects of repetition of novel objects, and whether the representations bound to episodic memory tokens that yield repetition blindness are viewpoint dependent or whether they are object centred. Subjects were shown coloured drawings of simple three‐dimensional novel objects, and rate of presentation (Experiment 1) and rotation in depth (Experiment 2) were manipulated. Repetition blindness occurred only at the higher rate (105 ms/item), and was found even for stimuli differing in orientation. We conclude that object‐centred representations are bound to episodic memory tokens, and that these are constructed prior to object recognition operating on novel as well as known objects. These results are contrasted with those found with written materials, and implications for explanations of repetition blindness are considered.     

Multiple contributions to priming effects for familiar faces: analyses with backward masking and event-related potentials

The model of face recognition by Bruce and Young postulates a pool of structural representations for familiar faces in long-term memory, so-called face recognition units (FRUs). Event-related brain potentials show early repetition priming effects for familiar faces around 250-300 ms [N250r or early repetition effect (ERE)], which are thought to reflect the activation of these FRUs. However, small N250r effects are also seen for unfamiliar faces suggesting that priming of perceptual codes (i.e., pictorial and structural codes) also contributes to early repetition effects. Using a face-familiarity task in Experiment 1, we aimed to eliminate these perceptual contributions to face priming by backward masking the prime face with a different, unfamiliar face. As expected, a repetition priming effect appeared only for familiar faces. Experiment 2 used a semantic-decision task and compared the effects of different kinds of masks that interfered with either pictorial codes or with pictorial and structural codes. Our findings indicate that both structural codes and memory representations contribute to the N250r and that unfamiliar-face masks interfere only with structural codes. Face-masks may therefore provide a useful tool to extract the pure contributions of memory representations (i.e., FRUs) to repetition priming.     

THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENTIAL PRE-READING INSTRUCTIONS ON CONSTRUCTING DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF SITUATIONAL REPRESENTATIONS AND PROBLEM-SOLVING IN FL NARRATIVE TEXT COMPREHENSION

This article reports two experiments that address effects of differential pre-reading instructions: 1) IP (instruction to monitor procedural representations) and IN (no instruction); and 2) IS (instruction to monitor spatial representations) and IN, on subsequent situational representations construction and problem-solving in FL narrative text comprehension. While the structure of IP was consistent with the text, the structure of IS was not. The results from Experiment 1 suggest that IP helps readers with low FL proficiency to construct situational representations, but is of little help to solve an inference problem. In addition, readers with low proficiency are hindered from comprehending a text by IS. Experiment 2 suggests that for readers with higher (high-intermediate) FL proficiency, IP had little effect on constructing situational representations and had a negative effect on solving an inference problem. IS, on the other hand, enhances these readers' construction of situational representations and helps their problem-solving. Thus, language proficiency mediates the effects of prereading instructions on the subsequent text comprehension.     

The construction of spatial situation models during reading

Psycholinguistic research faces a major challenge in describing the mental representations readers construct from a text. It is now widely accepted that readers end with a representation of the situation described in the text. However, it is unclear whether this representation allows the activation of elements in accordance with their situation proximity. To answer this question, two experiments were conducted. Participants read texts, sentence by sentence, which gave them instructions about how to arrange items in a layout; they then performed a recognition task. By manipulating the spatial proximity between prime and probe items, this task allowed the measurement of a spatial priming effect. In the first experiment, a larger priming effect was observed for closer items on the spatial layout. The second experiment replicated these findings and showed that the priming effects are better explained by categorical distance than by Euclidean distance.     

The unbearable lightness of priming

Repetition priming from text to isolated words has been difficult to observe. One explanation for this difficulty is that previous attempts to observe this type of priming have utilised conditions that normally reduce priming. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate this hypothesis. Experiment 1 involved participants being presented with words in isolation and in text passages. The words were then presented again in a lexical decision test. Results indicated that priming occurred as a result of exposure to both isolated words and words in text, although priming was greater in the word-word condition. Experiment 2 investigated whether priming occurred in a lexical decision test on words that had been read prior to the test in Milan Kundera's novel "The Unbearable Lightness of Being." There was some evidence that participants who had read the book recently were faster at lexical decision to words from the book than participants who had not read the book. The two experiments therefore indicate that priming can occur from text to isolated words, although it is smaller in magnitude to that observed from word to word. Reasons for this difference, as suggested by Kirsner and Speelman (J. Exp. Psychol.: Learn. Mem. Cogn. 22 (1996) 563) model of repetition priming, are discussed.     

The representation of moving 3-D objects in apparent motion perception

In the present research, we investigated the depth information contained in the representations of apparently moving 3-D objects. By conducting three experiments, we measured the magnitude of representational momentum (RM) as an index of the consistency of an object’s representation. Experiment 1A revealed that RM magnitude was greater when shaded, convex, apparently moving objects shifted to a flat circle than when they shifted to a shaded, concave, hemisphere. The difference diminished when the apparently moving objects were concave hemispheres (Experiment 1B). Using luminance-polarized circles, Experiment 2 confirmed that these results were not due to the luminance information of shading. Experiment 3 demonstrated that RM magnitude was greater when convex apparently moving objects shifted to particular blurred convex hemispheres with low-pass filtering than when they shifted to concave hemispheres. These results suggest that the internal object’s representation in apparent motion contains incomplete depth information intermediate between that of 2-D and 3-D objects, particularly with regard to convexity information with low-spatial-frequency components.     

Repetition priming in an auditory lexical decision task: Effects of lexical status

The effect of lexical status on the time course of repetition priming was examined in an auditory lexical decision task. Words and nonwords were repeated at lags of 0, 1, 4, and 8 items (Experiment 1A) and 0, 2, 4, and 8 items (Experiment 1B). The pattern of repetition effects differed for words and nonwords in that repetition priming for nonwords at lag 0 was significantly greater than for words. The magnitude of this effect decreased when one or more items intervened. A second experiment, replicating Experiment 1A with visual presentation, clarified that the greater magnitude of repetition priming for nonwords at lag 0 is unique to the auditory modality. This finding suggests that in the course of forming a stable perceptual representation, the details of the acoustic/phonological information of an auditory stimulus are more readily available for nonwords than for words. The capacity to carry this phonological information is limited, however, and can only be maintained until another stimulus is encountered.     

Repetition benefit in mental rotation is independent of stimulus repetition

In this study, we investigated whether there is a repetition benefit in mental rotation that is independent of stimulus repetition (i.e., due to increased efficiency in postencoding processing). Three experiments were conducted, in which different conditions of stimulus repetition (different letters on consecutive trials in Experiment 1, letters of different orientations on consecutive trials in Experiment 2, and priming of rotation direction in Experiment 3) were used, and the extent of repetition of rotation direction between two consecutive trials was manipulated. The results of all three experiments showed clear evidence of a repetition benefit without repeating the stimulus, suggesting that this effect is independent of stimulus repetition and lending support to the notion of increased efficiency in mental rotation as a result of repeated rotation direction per se.