Child victims: Searching for opportunities to break the cycle of violence

In 1986 I began research to address the relationship between early child abuse and neglect and later deliquent and violent criminal behavior using a prospective cohort design. The relationship is not inevitable, suggesting an opportunity for long-range violence prevention through appropriate early intervention. Here, I briefly describe how childhood victimization and violent criminal behavior are related and illustrate a number of promising strategies and opportunities to intervene. Finally, I offer five principles to guide interventions: (1) the earlier the intervention, the better; (2) don't neglect neglected children; (3) one size does not fit all; (4) surveillance—a double-edged sword; and (5) accessibility to resources. Rather than focusing on responses to child abuse or neglect in court proceedings that “treat” offenders, primary prevention efforts should target childhood victims to reduce their risk of becoming offenders in the future.     

Early childhood predictors of boys’ antisocial and violent behavior in early adulthood

Research on early childhood predictors of violent behaviors in early adulthood is limited. The current study investigated whether individual, family, and community risk factors from 18 to 42 months of age were predictive of violent criminal arrests during late adolescence and early adulthood using a sample of 310 low-income male participants living in an urban community. In addition, differences in trajectories of overt conduct problems (CP), hyperactivity/attention problems (HAP), and co-occurring patterns of CP and HAP from age 1½ to 10 years were investigated in regard to their relationship to violent and nonviolent behaviors, depression, and anxiety at age 20. Results of multivariate analyses indicated that early childhood family income, home environment, emotion regulation, oppositional behavior, and minority status were all significant in distinguishing violent offending boys from those with no criminal records. In addition, trajectories of early childhood CP, but not attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, were significantly related to self-reports of violent behavior, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Implications for the prevention of early childhood risk factors associated with adolescent and adult violent behavior for males are discussed.     

Substance use/abuse as a predictor to illegal and violent behavior: A review of the relevant literature

The preponderance of the research evidence supports the conclusion that abuse of certain types of illicit drugs, separately from the abuse of alcohol, predisposes to subsequent violent behavior. The relationship of cocaine/crack to violent crime has been established more clearly for users of crack in inner city areas than it has for those who are users of other forms of cocaine in the general population.In regard to any race/ethnic or socioeconomic factors in the relationships between substance use/abuse and violent behavior, most clearly established is that a higher proportion of young Black males, compared to other race/ethnic groups, are actively involved in dealing cocaine/crack in some inner city poverty areas.As for gender differences, the research evidence indicates that alcohol abuse as a predictor to and a precipitant of violent behavior, is more clearly established for males than for females. Drug abuse, as distinct from alcohol abuse, has been found to predict subsequent violent behavior, for females as well as for males. “Co-morbidity,” the combination of substance use with and psychopathology, appears more likely to predict for females to later violent behavior. Psychopathology and mental health problems are less likely to predict occurrence of either violent or criminal behavior in the future than are either alcohol abuse or drug abuse.     

Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature

Critically examines the "violence breeds violence" hypothesis broadly defined. Organized into seven sections, the literature review includes (a) the abuse breeds abuse hypothesis; (b) reports of small numbers of violent/homicidal offenders; (c) studies examining the relationship of abuse and neglect to delinquency, (d) to violent behavior, and (e) to aggressive behavior in infants and young children; (f) abuse, withdrawal, and self-destructive behavior; and (g) studies of the impact of witnessing or observing violent behavior. A detailed discussion of methodological considerations and shortcomings precedes the review. The author concludes that existing knowledge of the long-term consequences of abusive home environments is limited and suggests that conclusions about the strength of the cycle of violence be tempered by the dearth of convincing empirical evidence. Recommendations are made for further research.     

Treatment of co-occurring child maltreatment and substance abuse

Despite high prevalence and severe negative consequences of child maltreatment (e.g., Brown, G. R., & Anderson, B., (1991). Psychiatric morbidity in adult inpatients with childhood histories of sexual and physical abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 55–61; Jaudes, P. K., Ekwo, E., & Van Voorhis, J.V., (1995). Association of drug abuse and child abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19, 1065–1075; Murphy, J. M., Jellinek, M., Quinn, D., Smith, G., & Goshkom, M., (1991). Substance abuse and serious child mistreatment: Prevalence, risk, and outcome in a court sample. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 197—211), the treatment of perpetrators and victims of child abuse and neglect remains grossly understudied (Behl, L. E., Conyngham, H. A., & May, P. F., (2003). Trends in child maltreatment literature. Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, 215–229). More than half of parentes founded for the abuse and neglect of their children have evidenced drug abuse, yet no treatments have been validated that concurrently address these problems. The reciprocal interaction between substance abuse and child maltreatment supports the need to concurrently treat these problems. This article illustrates the relationship between child maltreatment and parental substance abuse and proposes a behavioral model to explain the reciprocal influence of drug abuse and child maltreatment. A behavioral treatment plan that is designed to concurrently address drug abuse and child abuse is proposed and suggestions are made for future directions in this area.     

Prevention of child abuse and neglect

With the dramatic increase in recent reports of physical and sexual child abuse and neglect, professionals are well as the public are increasingly concerned about the prevention of child abuse. This article provides an overview of existing child abuse prevention programs (physical abuse and sexual abuse programs are treated separately). Five computerized data bases (psychology, social work, criminal justice, education, and social sciences) were searched for literature published between 1982 and 1991. We also call attention to critical issues that need to be considered in the development and planning of future prevention efforts and evaluations.     

Factors that distinguish aggression toward animals from other antisocial behaviors: Evidence from a community sample

Animal cruelty is a form of passive and active aggression that is largely undocumented and unreported. Given that animals are voiceless victims, we have to rely on witnesses and frontline staff (e.g., veterinarians) to report incidents of abuse, which suggests the number of convicted animal abusers is an under‐representation of actual perpetrators. The primary aim of the current study was to identify the static and dynamic factors that distinguish animal abusers from non‐abuse offenders (i.e., individuals who self‐reported antisocial behavior, but not animal abuse), and non‐offenders (i.e., individuals who have not engaged in any antisocial behavior) in a community sample. The secondary aim was to identify the potential pathways that distinguish animal abuse perpetration from other types of antisocial behavior. Three hundred and eighty‐four participants took part in this retrospective, correlational study. We found that animal abusers share similar socio‐demographic characteristics to other offenders but are distinct in their exposure to animal harm/killing during childhood. Low animal‐oriented empathy and low self‐esteem distinguished animal abusers from non‐abuse offenders when controlling for confound variables and other psychological characteristics. We also found that low animal‐oriented empathy mediated the relationship between childhood exposure to animal killing and animal abuse perpetration, and that this relationship was stronger among participants with anger regulation issues. This is the first study to examine similarities and differences between animal abusers, non‐abuse offenders, and non‐offenders on socio‐demographic and psychological characteristics. The findings highlight potential treatment targets that are unique to animal abusers with implications for prevention and intervention strategies.

     

The Roles of Childhood Maltreatment and Psychopathy in Sexual Recidivism of Treated Sex Offenders

Abstract

The Intensive Treatment Program for Sexual Offenders (ITPSO) at the Correctional Service of Canada (CSC) provides cognitive-behavioral group treatment to federally incarcerated sex offenders. Follow-up data for 81 of these men were examined, looking at psychopathy and childhood maltreatment history as potential predictors of recidivism using Survival Analysis. Offenders who had been placed in foster care as a child were more likely to recidivate; however when PCL-R Factor 2 scores (a history of antisocial behavior) were entered, they predicted over and above foster care history. Childhood physical abuse predicted sexual recidivism; however, childhood sexual abuse and PCL-R scores did not predict sexual recidivism. PCL-R Factor 2 scores predicted violent recidivism.     

儿童期虐待对大学生情绪调节自我效能感的影响

探讨大学生儿童期虐待与情绪调节自我效能感(RESE)的关系。采用儿童期虐待问卷和情绪调节自我效能感量表调查472名大学生,筛选未受虐待者为对照组,并设定情感虐待伴情感忽视(EAEN)、情感忽视伴躯体忽视(ENPN)和情感虐待伴躯体忽视(EAPN)共3个实验组。结果表明：⑴躯体虐待、情感虐待、性虐待、躯体忽视和情感忽视发生率分别为7.3%、40.2%、12.0%、42.1%、41.3%;⑵典型相关分析发现,虐待和RESE的整体相关显著,虐待变量和RESE变量可被自身典型变量解释的比例分别为34.5%和36.8%,冗余指数分别6.7和7.2;⑶EAEN和ENPN组调节生气/愤怒情绪效能感得分显著高于EAPN组,对照组调节积极情绪效能感得分显著高于3个实验组。     

Childhood Trauma,Criminogenic Social Schemas,and Violent Crime

ABSTRACT

Utilizing a sample of 400 homeless street youth, the study draws on the social schematic theory of crime to examine if childhood trauma (physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and sexual abuse) is linked to the development of a criminogenic knowledge structure (CKS) that mediates its relationship with violence. Results indicate childhood trauma is directly associated with the CKS. They also show that it is indirectly related through violent peers. The CKS in turn is directly linked to violence as are childhood trauma and violent peers. The CKS also mediates the relationship childhood trauma and violent peers have with violence. Violent peers likewise mediate the association between childhood trauma and violence. The link between childhood trauma and violence is also serially mediated through violent peers and the CKS. Findings suggest the social schematic theory offers a valuable explanation for the link between childhood trauma and violence.     

Pilot Evaluation of the ACT Raising Safe Kids Program on Children’s Bullying Behavior

Research documents that parents play a critical role in the development and maintenance of behavior problems in children. Few bullying prevention programs, however, target children in early childhood or include a parenting component in spite of experts recommending that parent training in behavior management be addressed. Based upon these recommendations, the present study examines the relationship among parent characteristics (hostility, depression, and overall parenting skills) and child bullying and the effects of the American Psychological Association’s ACT Raising Safe Kids program on reducing early childhood bullying. The ACT-RSK program is a primary family violence and child physical abuse prevention program for parents of young children. Fifty-two parents/caregivers, representing children ages 4–10, completed the Brief Symptom Inventory, the ACT Parents Raising Safe Kids Scale, and Early Childhood Bullying Questionnaire (derived from the Child Behavior Checklist and Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). Twenty-five of these parents/caregivers were trained in effective parenting including nonviolent discipline, child development, anger management, social problem-solving skills, effects of violent media on children, and methods to protect children from exposure to violence through the ACT-RSK program. The remaining 27 parents/caregivers received treatment as usual. Results indicate decreased bullying in children whose parents completed the ACT-RSK program. Furthermore, of the parent characteristics assessed, parental hostility is the only significant parent predictor for child bullying. These findings suggest the efficacy of this brief intervention for preventing bullying.     

A Trust-Based Home Intervention for Special-Needs Adopted Children: A Case Study

Research on the effects of abuse, neglect, and other traumas in early childhood has consistently demonstrated severe deficits that can be prevalent across the life span. Costs associated with addressing such deficits in special-needs children can strain families and are an immense financial burden to society. Trust-Based Relational Intervention® is an intervention modality that targets the attachment system as part of a dynamic system of development. Presented is a summary of the costs of addressing the sequelae of childhood abuse and neglect, a brief overview of Trust-Based Relational Intervention, and a case study demonstrating the efficacy of this intervention with an adopted special-needs child in a home-based setting.     

Multiple forms of child abuse and neglect: adult retrospective reports

There are few research reports of the experience of multiple forms of child abuse and neglect (multi-type maltreatment). A critical review is presented of 29 studies in which adult retrospective reports of more than one form of child maltreatment (sexual abuse, physical abuse, psychological maltreatment, neglect, or witnessing family violence) are assessed. Empirical investigations of the extent and impact of multi-type maltreatment are identified. Data on the relationship between the different forms of maltreatment and the adjustment problems associated with each type of maltreatment are critiqued. As well as using dichotomous measures of maltreatment, an important methodological problem was the failure of researchers to assess all child maltreatment types, the relationship between multi-type maltreatment and adjustment, and the role of variables influencing the occurrence or impact of maltreatment. Considerable overlap was found in the occurrence of maltreatment types. The compounding or interacting effects of experiencing multi-type maltreatment were ignored in many studies. Where an assessment was made of the specific impact of multi-type maltreatment, it was associated with greater impairment than single forms of abuse or neglect. A multi-dimensional approach to prevention and treatment of child abuse and neglect is required in which children's vulnerability to multi-type maltreatment is addressed.     

Comparing the constructs of antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy in a sample of incarcerated women

Our study examines the relationship between Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) and psychopathy among a sample of 137 female offenders. Drawing from a historical review of the evolution of these two concepts, we explore their differential relationship to patterns of criminal behavior, psychological adjustment, co-morbidity with other personality disorders, victimization, and institutional adjustment. Findings suggest that the two disorders share a common foundation of social norm violations and deception; however, APD is associated with impulsive, aggressive, and irresponsible behavior, higher rates of childhood abuse, and greater co-morbidity with Cluster A PDs, while psychopathy is better characterized by higher rates of property crimes, previous incarceration, and the manifestation of remorselessness. Results contribute to a further understanding of the etiology and phenomenology of these two disorders and suggest different types of treatment and intervention.     

Social learning,sexual and physical abuse,and adult crime

This research examines the relationship between childhood physical and sexual abuse and the types of crimes committed by male adult offenders. We use the method of discriminant prediction to determine whether independent and dependent variables are related in ways that theories predict. Our analyses of data from the Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities suggest that offenders model specific behaviors to which they have been exposed. Male offenders who were sexually abused as a child are more likely to commit sexual offenses, particularly sexual offenses against children, than nonsexual offenses. Offenders who were physically abused are more likely to engage in violent offenses than nonviolent offenses. Further analyses show that sexual offenders, and to a lesser extent violent offenders, are likely to specialize in those offenses. Our results are consistent with a social learning approach. They address a heretofore neglected issue: what exactly do children model when they are mistreated. Aggr. Behav. 35:489–501, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Suicidal and criminal behavior among female offenders: the role of abuse and psychopathology

Childhood abuse is relatively prevalent among women and is an important risk factor for both criminal behavior and suicide-related behavior (SRB). Based on a sample of 266 female offenders, we address one theoretical and one practical issue. First, from a theoretical perspective, we assess whether internalizing (depression and anxiety) and externalizing (substance abuse and antisocial behavior) psychopathology mediate the relation between abuse on the one hand, and SRB or criminal behavior, on the other. Results indicate that externalizing problems mediate the relation between childhood abuse and both lifetime SRB (fully) and lifetime criminality (partially). Second, at a practical level, results indicate that a subscale of the Revised Psychopathy Checklist (PCL-R; Hare, 1991) that assesses lifetime criminal behavior adds incremental utility to postdicting SRB, beyond the variance accounted for by self-report measures of abuse and externalizing problems. However, none of the measures-including the PCL-R-predicted future recidivism.     

The welcome baby program: A community-based volunteer prevention model of caring,sharing, and support for new parents

Primary prevention is one of the most important components of any community child abuse and neglect program. Welcome Baby is a community-based, volunteer primary prevention program that offers caring, sharing, and support to parents of newborns through hospital visitation and follow-up contacts during the adjustment period that surrounds the birth of a baby. Program goals include personal support for the new mother, prevention of child abuse and neglect by providing support and information for all parents, reinforcement of strengths and support for quality parenting, improving emotional preparation for parenthood, and early identification and intervention for families with the potential for maltreatment. Program rationale and conclusions agree with research findings that early and consistent support and intervention with high-risk families improve the quality of parent-child interaction and significantly reduce the risk of maltreatment. This article outlines the basic philosophy, goals, and operations of this community prevention program.     

Psychopathic traits in adolescent offenders: an evaluation of criminal history, clinical, and psychosocial correlates

Although a large body of research has established the relevance of psychopathy to adult offenders, its relevance to adolescent offenders is far less clear. The current study evaluated the clinical, psychosocial and criminal correlates of psychopathic traits in a sample of 226 male and female incarcerated adolescent offenders. According to an 18-item version of the Psychopathy Checklist-Youth Version (PCL-YV; Forth, Kosson, & Hare, 2003), only 9.4% exhibited a high level of psychopathic traits (PCL-YV>/=25). Consistent with past research, higher PCL-YV scores were positively associated with self-reported delinquency and aggressive behavior and were unrelated to emotional difficulties. Although higher PCL-YV scores were associated with the experience of physical abuse, the only psychosocial factor to predict PCL-YV scores was a history of non-parental living arrangements (e.g. foster care). In terms of criminality, a violent/versatile criminal history was positively associated with psychopathic traits. However, PCL-YV scores were unrelated to participants' official criminal records for total, non-violent, violent, and technical violation convictions. In conclusion, the data partially support the construct validity of psychopathy with adolescent offenders, but some inconsistencies with prior adult and adolescent psychopathy research were evident. These issues are discussed.     

The “sexually abused child”: Potential mechanisms of adverse influences of such a label

Labeling and the effects of labeling have been extensively researched in the psychological literature in a variety of different contexts. For example, labeling has been empirically shown to lead to lowered expectancies of behavior and achievement, which can then contribute to the potential for the occurrence of a self-fulfilling prophecy with adverse consequences. Another area that has been extensively researched, with a dramatic increase in the literature base in recent history, is that of child sexual abuse (CSA). Despite various shortcomings of the research literature, the consistent findings have been identification of a variety of negative correlates and symptomatologies associated with CSA. In addition to any direct, negative effects of CSA, there may also be an additional impact from the “label” itself. Although the literature pertaining to CSA and labeling runs deep independently, efforts at addressing the issue of CSA within a labeling contextual framework have been minimal. To that end, this article examines hypothesized mechanisms of how the “sexual abuse” label may potentially have an adverse influence on the children subjected to such a label. The implications of an analysis, which addresses childhood sexual abuse from such a theoretical framework, may be a broader and more holistic understanding of the complexities and sequelae associated with CSA.     

Violent offenses associated with co‐occurring substance use and mental health problems: Evidence from CJDATS

The present study examines the relationship between substance use, mental health problems, and violence in a sample of offenders released from prison and referred to substance abuse treatment programs. Data from 34 sites (n = 1,349) in a federally funded cooperative, the Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJDATS), were analyzed. Among parolees referred to substance abuse treatment, self‐reports for the six‐month period before the arrest resulting in their incarceration revealed frequent problems with both substance use and mental health. For most offenders with substance use problems, the quantity of alcohol consumed and the frequency of drug use were associated with a greater probability of self‐reported violence. Mental health problems were not indicative of increases in violent behavior, with the exception of antisocial personality problems, which were associated with violence. The paper emphasizes the importance of providing substance abuse treatment in relation to violent behavior among offenders with mental health problems being discharged to the community. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.