The Milgram Paradigm After 35 Years: Some Things We Now Know About Obedience to Authority1

Guided by the belief that we cannot make broad extrapolations from the obedience studies without first firmly establishing what has and has not been found using the paradigm itself, this article draws on 35 years of accumulated research and writings on the obedience paradigm to present a status report on the following salient questions and issues surrounding obedience to authority: (a) How should we construe the nature of authority in the obedience experiment? (b) Do predictions of those unfamiliar with the obedience experiment underestimate the actual obedience rates? (c) Are there gender differences in obedience? and (d) Have obedience rates changed over time?     

专长发展与职业发展视域下的教师心理

教师的成长心理已成为教育心理学研究的一个重要领域。近十几年来,从认知心理学视角进行的教师教学专长发展心理的研究,以及从职业心理学视角进行的教师心理特征与心理健康的研究已取得很多有价值的成果。在分析国内外已有研究的基础上,为进一步推进我国教师心理研究提出了几点建议。     

Reevaluating the Identity Status Paradigm: Still Useful after 35 Years

In this article we respond to van Hoof's (1999) critique of the identity status paradigm. Our review and evaluation of the existing data on identity statuses lead us to be more optimistic than van Hoof about the convergent and discriminant validity of identity status measures, especially objective measures that provide continuous status scores as well as nominal status classifications. Our review of longitudinal studies revealed that among university students tested annually 3 or more times, change in status classifications is significantly more likely to be observed than stability. Moreover, virtually all longitudinal studies with university students indicate that status changes are more likely to be progressive rather than regressive in terms of the hypothesized identity status developmental sequence. However, considerable status regression and fluctuation is observed and we agree with van Hoof that it may no longer be useful to postulate an invariant sequence of identity status stages. Nonetheless, the data do indicate reliable status differences in self-regulatory control processes including ego development, social-cognitive processing orientations, cognitive complexity, self-integration, moral development, and so on. Consequently, we conclude that a useful strategy, at least with university students, may be to focus on the social-cognitive processes that underpin identity statuses and to conceptualize these identity orientations as different styles of dealing with the demands, challenges, and opportunities afforded by institutionalized moratoria, such as a university context. Two lines of recent research inspired by this conceptualization are discussed.     

Child-care effect sizes for the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development

This report summarizes findings from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development as effect sizes for exclusive maternal care and--for children in child care--type, quality, and quantity of care. Children (n = 1,261) were recruited at birth and assessed at 15, 24, 36, and 54 months. Exclusive maternal care did not predict child outcomes, but multiple features of child-care experience were modestly to moderately predictive. Higher quality child care was related to advanced cognitive, language, and preacademic outcomes at every age and better socioemotional and peer outcomes at some ages. More child-care hours predicted more behavior problems and conflict, according to care providers. More center-care time was related to higher cognitive and language scores and more problem and fewer prosocial behaviors, according to care providers. Child-care effect sizes are discussed from 3 perspectives: (a) absolute effect sizes, reflecting established guidelines; (b) relative effect sizes, comparing child-care and parenting effects; and (c) possible individual and collective implications for the large numbers of children experiencing child care.     

Ten Years to Expertise,Many More to Greatness: An Investigation of Modern Writers

The “ten‐year rule” suggests that it takes about 10 years of preparation to reach “expert” status. How long does it take, however, for someone to reach a level of creative greatness? Through an analysis of 215 contemporary fiction writers, we found that these writers took an average of 10.6 years between their first publication and their best publication, although there was a high degree of variability. This tentatively suggests that at least for modern fiction writers, a second phase after the first ten years may be crucial for achieving eminence. We discuss these findings in the context of results found in other domains of creativity, along with limitations and future directions.     

Toward the Development of Socio-Metacognitive Expertise: An Approach to Developing Collaborative Competence

We proposed and evaluated an instructional framework for increasing students' ability to understand and regulate collaborative interactions called Co-Regulated Collaborative Learning (CRCL). In this instantiation of CRCL, models of collaborative competence were articulated through a set of socio-metacognitive roles. Our population consisted of 28 students from one urban classroom taking part in an 11-week science unit. Our research questions focused on examining the extent to which students understood and used the roles as intended to regulate collaborative interactions to address group process problems. Mixed-methods analysis of collaborative work sessions determined that (a) students generally understood the language and purpose of the roles, (b) students frequently used and accepted the roles to monitor and regulate activity, and (c) students' ability to use the roles to monitor and regulate activity improved over time. This paper contributes to our understanding of socio-metacognition and trade-offs associated to its development in classroom settings.     

Successful Development: Childhood Antecedents of Adaptive Psychosocial Functioning in Adulthood

The study was part of the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development. Data on developmental background for 131 women and 130 men consisted of variables for (1) emotion regulation at age 8, (2) cognitive–motivational orientation at age 14, and (3) family circumstances, and data on adult outcomes for variables concerning psychosocial functioning at age 36. Links between the childhood and adulthood variables were investigated using the LISREL model which consisted of two parts, the measurement model and the structural equation model. Two correlating latent factors emerged from adult outcomes for men and women: Social Functioning, consisting of external criteria for successful development (stability of career line, controlled drinking, socialization) and Psychological Functioning, consisting of internal criteria (self-esteem and psychological well-being). Only Social Functioning was explained by developmental background. High emotion regulation in childhood was a more robust antecedent of good social functioning in men than in women.     

Foster Care Youth Share Stories of Trauma Before,During, and After Placement: Youth Voices for Building Trauma-Informed Systems of Care

Many research studies address child trauma experiences that take place before foster care placement. However, few studies focus on the types and patterns of trauma experiences that reportedly take place during and after foster care placement; that is, after entry into adult living. This study examined the testimony of 43 foster care youth who spoke to a listening panel comprised of state legislators, child welfare professionals, and university educators. Qualitative analyses of transcribed text data revealed 3 main themes. First, the youth reported experiencing trauma before, during, and after placement. Second, the youth described trauma events and situations that were chronic (i.e., intense, composite, or cumulative). Third, youth offered suggestions for reducing traumatic experiences for foster care youth. They recommended earlier family interventions, access to people who listen and care, improved parenting skills for foster parents, continuity of relationships, and opportunities for leadership for foster youth. Foster youth voices offer important suggestions for building, strengthening, and evaluating trauma-informed systems of care.     

Reuse and Recycle: The Development of Adaptive Expertise,Routine Expertise,and Novelty in a Large Research Team

Combining innovation and efficiency is ideal in many organizational settings. Adaptive expertise represents a cognitive explanation of how individuals and teams can learn to achieve simultaneous innovation and efficiency. In 2004, scientists led twin rovers on Mars in the search for historical water. The science team experienced a remarkable increase in efficiency, adapting with flexibility to unexpected events and dynamic, dwindling resources. After discussing the conceptual differences between adaptive expertise and related team learning and innovation concepts, we examine longitudinal behavioral data on novelty, routine and adaptive expertise. Sequential time series ARIMA analyses reveal that novelty fluctuated randomly, but both routine and adaptive expertise significantly increased over time. In addition, novelty, routine expertise, and adaptive expertise did not significantly predict each other directly or at a lag, suggesting that these are indeed three distinct constructs. Implications for theory and research on efficiency and innovation are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

政治与关系视角的员工职业发展影响因素探讨

通过对16家制造型企业中的343个员工、662个同事及343个直接领导的配对数据进行实证分析,文章探讨了员工的组织政治技能、政治知觉,以及他们与直接上司的关系对于员工职业发展的关系。多层线性分析模型（HLM）结果表明：员工的政治技能有助于促进其与领导之间形成良好的关系（guanxi）,并籍此积极影响个人在组织中的职业发展,员工－领导关系是政治技能与职业发展之间的中介变量。另外,组织政治知觉影响政治技能对领导关系的作用,在政治氛围浓重的组织中,员工－领导关系更易受到员工政治技能的影响     

Antecedents and Outcomes of Organizational Commitment: A Study of Salespeople

The role organizational commitment plays in salesperson behavior is unresearched. To increase understanding of both causes and outcomes of organizational commitment for salespeople, this study proposed and tested a path model. The model was drawn from the framework for studying organizational commitment proposed by Chornco (1986).

The study results imply that salespeoples' performance is not determined by commitment or by effort, but that it is positively affected by the sales manager, income and education. Commitment was positively affected by anticipatory socialization, work satisfaction and manager satisfaction. Means for building commitment are discussed, as are situations where management should stress salesforce commitment.     

The Empirical Study of the Persuasive Effects of Evidence The Status After Fifty Years of Research

This article presents a review of the development of research on the persuasive effects of evidence. Focusing on research dealing with the impact of evidence on persuasive communication, this review makes three related arguments. First, past claims about the inconsistency in evidence research are largely mistaken when testimonial assertion evidence is involved; second, the conditions under which evidence should produce maximal effects can be understood by reference to Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model; finally, persuasive effects are surprisingly consistent across evidence types when careful comparison of operational definitions, rather than conclusions, is undertaken.     

Spirituality Development for Homeless Youth: A Mindfulness Meditation Feasibility Pilot

Few resilience enhancement interventions are available to help homeless youth at high risk for mental health problems and substance abuse. Mindfulness meditation has demonstrated effectiveness in persons who deal with some of these issues. Our purpose was to examine the feasibility of delivering a spirituality development class—a minimally modified version of Yale University’s 8-session Spiritual Self-Schema (3-S) program—to homeless youth in a shelter in an urban center in the Southeastern United States. We used a quasi-experimental, one group, pre- and post-intervention design with standardized self-report measures of impulsiveness, resilience, spirituality, mental wellness, and psychological symptoms. Seventy-one youth enrolled in the study; 39 of the youth attended at least four sessions of the class and completed the posttest. The spirituality development class was well received by the youth and, overall, participants demonstrated improvement on measures of spirituality, mental wellness, psychological symptoms, and resilience on the posttest. There were no statistically meaningful changes in impulsiveness scores. We concluded that mindfulness meditation programs are feasible for this population. Future studies of high-risk youth should use a randomized controlled trial design to examine the long-term impact of such training on psychological status and behavioral outcomes such as educational path, work attainment, and drug and alcohol abuse.     

Adolescent Personality Antecedents of Adult Cigarette Smoking: A Longitudinal Study

Comprehensive personality assessments, made independently for early and late adolescence, were employed to predict smoking onset and maximum number of cigarettes smoked per day as reported by adult smokers. Also, comparisons were made between adult smokers and nonsmokers. The results indicate that men who had been more sexually active as adolescents smoked more but that women who had been more emotionally constricted and under more conflict as adolescents were heavier smokers. Smoking started earlier for men who had showed little self-awareness and a rather macho orientation during their adolescence; early-smoking women tended to have been conventionally feminine. Personality differences between future smokers and nonsmokers were few but showed similar sex differences. The results suggest that manifesting once traditional sex-role characteristics for both adolescent boys and girls presages early onset and heavier adult cigarette smoking. Preventive antismoking educational campaigns aimed at youth might be guided by these findings because they suggest some motivational bases that may find later expression in smoking practices.     

Male Mental Health Problems, Psychopathy, and Personality Traits: Key Findings from the First 14 Years of the Pittsburgh Youth Study

This paper reviews key findings on juvenile mental health problems in boys, psychopathy, and personality traits, obtained in the first 14 years of studies using data from the Pittsburgh Youth Study. This is a study of 3 samples, each of about 500 boys initially randomly drawn from boys in the 1st, 4th, and 7th grades of public schools in Pittsburgh. The boys have been followed regularly, initially each half year, and later at yearly intervals. Currently, the oldest boys are about 25 years old, whereas the youngest boys are about 19. Findings are presented on the prevalence and interrelation of disruptive behaviors, ADHD, and depressed mood. Results concerning risk factors for these outcomes are reviewed. Psychological factors such as psychopathy, impulsivity, and personality are described. The paper closes with findings on service delivery of boys with mental health problems.     

Ascribed and Achieved Antecedents of Occupational Attainment: A Panel Study

Using a longitudinal sample of 583 males, this research examined the relationships among selected ascribed and achieved traits and their relationships to occupational attainment.     

Bridging Science to Practice: Achieving Prevention Program Implementation Fidelity in the Community Youth Development Study

This paper describes the development, application, and results of an implementation monitoring component of the Communities That Care (CTC) prevention framework used in the Community Youth Development Study (CYDS) to ensure high-fidelity prevention program implementation. This system was created based on research that community-based implementation of evidence-based prevention programs often includes adaptations in program design, content, or manner of delivery (Gottfredson and Gottfredson, Journal of research in crime and delinquency, 39, 3-35, 2002; Hallfors and Godette, Health Education Research, 17, 461-470, 2002; Wandersman and Florin, American Psychologist, 58, 441-448, 2003). A lack of fidelity to the implementation standards delineated by program designers is one indicator of a gap between prevention science and practice which can lessen the likelihood that communities will realize the positive participant effects demonstrated in research trials. By using the CTC model to select and monitor the quality of prevention activities, the 12 CYDS communities replicated 13 prevention programs with high rates of adherence to the programs' core components and in accordance with dosage requirements regarding the number, length, and frequency of sessions. This success indicates the potential of the CTC program implementation monitoring system to enhance community Prevention Delivery Systems (Wandersman et al. American Journal of Community Psychology, this issue) and improve the likelihood of desired participant changes.