From genius inverts to gendered intelligence: Lewis Terman and the power of the norm

The histories of "intelligence" and "sexuality" have largely been narrated separately. In Lewis Terman's work on individual differences, they intersect. Influenced by G. Stanley Hall, Terman initially described atypically accelerated development as problematic. Borrowing from Galton, Terman later positioned gifted children as nonaverage but ideal. Attention to the gifted effeminate subjects used to exemplify giftedness and gender nonconformity in Terman's work shows the selective instantiation of nonaverageness as pathological a propos of effeminacy, and as ideal a propos of high intelligence. Throughout, high intelligence is conflated with health, masculinity, and heterosexuality. Terman's research located marital sexual problems in women's bodies, further undoing possibilities for evaluating heterosexual men's practices as different from a normative position. Terman's research modernized Galton's imperialist vision of a society lead by a male cognitive elite. Psychologists continue to traffic in his logic that values and inculcates intelligence only in the service of sexual and gender conformity.     

Mental tests and fossils

This article investigates the origins of the intelligence test item known as the Ball and Field in Lewis M. Terman's Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. The question was initially raised by the resemblance of paleontological ocean bed floor tracings left by ancient creatures to the responses produced by children given the Ball and Field Test. A version of the Ball and Field Test was invented by Clifton F. Hodge, one of Terman's graduate school instructors who devised it as a result of his observations about how birds and other animals navigated and found their way. He then tested how humans and children located hidden objects and found that, in many ways, animals and humans used similar strategies for getting home or finding objects.     

聚焦思维结构的智力理论--林崇德的智力理论述评

林崇德的思维结构模型,是其智力理论的核心。因此,林崇德的智力理论,是一种聚焦思维结构的智力理论。不过,林崇德的智力理论,远不止其思维结构模型。他所提出的“智力结构是一个多元结构”的观点、“思维核心说”、“概括基础说”和“思维发展的模式”,也同样是其智力理论的重要内容。通观林崇德的智力理论,不难看出其四大特点:第一,理论性与实践性的有机统一;第二,两点论与重点论的有机统一;第三,智力培养与智力评价的有机统一;第四,不变性与可变性的有机统一。     

Race, brain size, and intelligence: a reply to Cernovsky

Cernovsky's 1990 critique of my work on the relation between brain size and IQ inadequately presents my position. I did not address the issue of sex differences in brain size nor did I conclude that "women are less intelligent than men" (p. 337). In the autopsy study cited by Cernovsky, it was concluded that, when body size is controlled, the male-female difference in brain size is removed but the black-white difference in brain size remains. Cernovsky also ignores much additional data, including that Mongoloid populations have larger and heavier brains than Caucasoids. Here, I review evidence on the relation between (a) brain size and race and (b) brain size and intelligence. Data are also tabulated for personality, speed of maturation, and sexuality, on all of which the Caucasoid average consistently falls between those of Mongoloids and Negroids. This ordering may be explained by a gene-based evolutionary theory of r/K reproductive strategies in which Mongoloids are more K-selected than Caucasoids and Caucasoids more than Negroids.     

Completed suicide in the gifted: a late comment on "suicide among gifted women".

A recent study by Tomlinson-Keasey, Warren, and Elliott (1986) found differences between completed suicides in Terman's sample of gifted children and comparison subjects. The present article suggests that the differences identified in Tomlinson-Keasey et al. may have been confounded by the fact that completed suicides are typically found to have higher levels of psychiatric disturbance than nonsuicides. Data are presented to illustrate that when the completed suicides in Terman's sample are matched for psychiatric disturbance with the comparison subjects, few differences are found.     

从智力的三元理论到成功智力:是对IQ的再次超越吗?

本文以智力的约定性为立论,把超越界定为智力的约定性的广度、深度和效度的大幅度提高。将斯腾伯格对智力的研究放到智力理论研究的历史过程中,对斯腾伯格的三元智力理论及成功智力理论对IQ的超越做了分析。指出传统IQ是学业差异约定,三元智力是多元权变约定,成功智力是人生成功约定,后者都是对前者的超越,成功智力是对IQ的再次超越。最后尝试性地提出智力约定性的“树”的隐喻。本文对智力理论的研究和教育实践有参考价值。     

Review of B. F. Skinner's The Behavior of Organisms

As I reread my review nearly 50 years later, I think of the circumstances. I had heard a paper by Fred at the Ithaca meeting of the APA in 1932, and recall the praise by Edna Heidbreder, who was sitting next to me, whose remark was that “He has a clean mind.” The year before his book appeared, I had already cited eight of his published papers in a review of the conditioned response in relation to conventional learning experiments that appeared in the Psychological Bulletin (1937, 34, 61–102). It may be because of that the editor sent me Fred's book to review.

When I received the copy of his new book to review, I read it carefully, and soon reported on it orally before Lewis Terman's weekly seminar to get comments and questions before revising my review. I was pleased by Terman's excitement over the originality of Fred's approach.

     

The intelligence of the Mongoloids: A psychometric, evolutionary and neurological theory

This paper presents a theory of the intelligence of the Mongoloids consisting of three linked sub-theories. The first concerns the psychometric features of Mongoloid intelligence and proposes that Mongoloids are characterised by high general intelligence (Spearman's g), high visuospatial abilities and low verbal abilities. Mongoloid abilities also display slow maturation in infancy and early childhood. It is proposed that this pattern of abilities cannot be explained in environmental terms and should be regarded as substantially genetically programmed. The second sub-theory presents an evolutionary explanation for this pattern of abilities in Mongoloids, whereby it is proposed that the extreme cold of the ice ages acted as a selection pressure for increases in Spearman's g and the visuospatial abilities. The low verbal abilities and slow maturation rates are interpreted as by-products of these adaptations. The third sub-theory presents a neurological model for the Mongoloid brain in which it is proposed that cortex devoted to the visuospatial abilities was expanded at the expense of the cortex devoted to the verbal abilities. The implication that there exists a negative correlation between the visuospatial abilities and the verbal abilities is considered in the concluding part of the paper and shown to be correct.     

A software agent model of consciousness.

Baars (1988, 1997) has proposed a psychological theory of consciousness, called global workspace theory. The present study describes a software agent implementation of that theory, called "Conscious" Mattie (CMattie). CMattie operates in a clerical domain from within a UNIX operating system, sending messages and interpreting messages in natural language that organize seminars at a university. CMattie fleshes out global workspace theory with a detailed computational model that integrates contemporary architectures in cognitive science and artificial intelligence. Baars (1997) lists the psychological "facts that any complete theory of consciousness must explain" in his appendix to In the Theater of Consciousness; global workspace theory was designed to explain these "facts." The present article discusses how the design of CMattie accounts for these facts and thereby the extent to which it implements global workspace theory.     

Revisiting the psychology of intelligence analysis: from rational actors to adaptive thinkers

Intelligence analysis is a decision-making process rife with ambiguous, conflicting, irrelevant, important, and excessive information. The U.S. Intelligence Community is primed for psychology to lend its voice to the "analytic transformation" movement aimed at improving the quality of intelligence analysis. Traditional judgment and decision making research serves as a starting point, though recent developments in decision science advance additional relevant perspectives that are critical to improving intelligence analysis. Naturalistic decision making offers insights into the challenging information world of intelligence analysis and expert judgment. Research on group decision making shows that group processes are often dependent on the distribution of information within the group, while information foraging theory suggests that intelligence analysts may be viewed as "informavores" who use adaptive strategies to form key judgments efficiently. Psychologists should capitalize on these advances in research and theory to engage the intelligence community on its own grounds and take the lead on intelligence analytic reform. A potential research agenda and recommendations to optimize intelligence community effectiveness are offered.     

Connectionism, eliminativism, and the semantic view of theories

Recently some philosophers have urged that connectionist artificial intelligence is (potentially) eliminative for the propositional attitudes of folk psychology. At the same time, however, these philosophers have also insisted that since philosophy of science has failed to provide criteria distinguishing ontologically retentive from eliminative theory changes, the resulting eliminativism is not principled. Application of some resources developed within the semantic view of scientific theories, particularly recent formal work on the theory reduction relation, reveals these philosophers to be wrong in this second contention, yet by and large correct in the first.     

A theory of intelligence: II. The role of span in a variety of intellectual tasks

This paper is the sequel to Part I in which a theory of intelligence was developed in terms of the concepts of span ability and complex stimulus control. A broad range of topics is discussed including discrimination learning, language, language development, reading, the relation between intelligence and learning, task analysis and the training of the mentally retarded, the role of span in IQ subtests, and suggestions for research. The paper includes summaries of previously unpublished research by the first author as well as published work by other investigators.     

斯腾伯格（R．J．Sternberg）智力成分理论述评

成分是斯腾伯格提出的分析智力操作的基本单元。成分分析是对智力行为心理机制的描述。但成分理论不能独立地说明智力,它隶属于斯氏三重智力理论的总体框架。论文分析了成分的性质、种类及其相互作用,并对个体和年龄差异在各种成分功能上的表现作出解释。成分理论的提出是对人脑黑箱软件意义上的工作原理的可贵探索。但它在可证伪性方面是有缺陷的。     

On intelligence II: A neo-Spearman model to replace Cattell's theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence

While many empirical studies now support second-order simple structure factor analytic distinctions consistent with Cattell's theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, the hierarchical order analyses carried out in the present study show that these factors are structured so as to suggest a neo-Spearman hierarchical model where fluid intelligence is equivalent to a general intelligence factor and broad group factors of verbal-educational knowledge, speediness, and visualization appear. The two models have different implications regarding the status of the fluid and crystallized "intelligence" factors and the relationship between them.     

CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research

During the past decade the Cattell–Horn Gf–Gc and Carroll Three-Stratum models have emerged as the consensus psychometric-based models for understanding the structure of human intelligence. Although the two models differ in a number of ways, the strong correspondence between the two models has resulted in the increased use of a broad umbrella term for a synthesis of the two models (Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory of cognitive abilities—CHC theory).The purpose of this editorial is three-fold. First, I will describe the CHC framework and recommend that intelligence researchers begin using the CHC taxonomy as a common nomenclature for describing research findings and a theoretical framework from which to test hypotheses regarding various aspects of human cognitive abilities. Second, I argue that the emergence of the CHC framework should not be viewed as the capstone to the psychometric era of factor analytic research. Rather, I recommend the CHC framework serve as the stepping stone to reinvigorate the investigation of the structure of human intelligence.Finally, the Woodcock-Muñoz Foundation Human Cognitive Abilities (HCA) project, which is an evolving, free, on-line electronic archive of the majority of datasets analyzed in Carroll's (1993) seminal treatise on factor analysis of human cognitive abilities, is introduced and described. Intelligence scholars are urged to access the Carroll HCA datasets to test and evaluate structural models of human intelligence with contemporary methods (confirmatory factor analysis). In addition, suggestions are offered for linking the analysis of contemporary data sets with the seminal work of Carroll. The emergence of a consensus CHC taxonomy and access to the original datasets analyzed by Carroll provides an unprecedented opportunity to extend and refine our understanding of human intelligence.     

On Intelligence IV: Toward a restoration of general intelligence

The present paper points to the limitations of a focusing on narrow primary factors of intelligence and argues for broad-factor structuring of ability data. Recent studies of such broad attributes would suggest a "rapprochement" between Spearman's general intelligence model and Cattell's theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence. Discussing the neo-Spearman organization of abilities thus proposed, the paper argues, however, that the conceptualization of intelligence suggested by this structural model is more akin to Thomson's "sampling" model than to the "power" model of both Spearman and Cattell. The possible role of these interpretations of ability data in future research on intelligent behavior is discussed.     

斯腾伯格思维风格理论述评

通过对传统学校教育弊端的分析,引入了斯腾伯格的“思维风格”理论,即三个层面上13种不同风格的心理自我管理理论,同时阐述了该理论与智力的关系,以及对学校教学改革的影响。我们通过保存多种风格形式,提升学校教学和评估环爷,将多种教育方式匹配于不同的风格类型,并积极教授之来实现对传统教学体制的改革。     

The locus of adult intelligence: knowledge, abilities, and nonability traits.

Some intelligence theorists (e.g., R. B. Cattell, 1943; D. O. Hebb, 1942) have suggested that knowledge is one aspect of human intelligence that is well preserved or increases during adult development. Very little is known about knowledge structures across different domains or about how individual differences in knowledge relate to other traits. Twenty academic and technology-oriented tests were administered to 135 middle-aged adults. In comparison with younger college students, the middle-aged adults knew more about nearly all of the various knowledge domains. Knowledge was partly predicted by general intelligence, by crystallized abilities, and by personality, interest, and self-concept. Implications of this work are discussed in the context of a developmental theory that focuses on the acquisition and maintenance of intelligence-as-knowledge, as well as the role of knowledge for predicting the vocational and avocational task performance of adults.     

长期合作学习小组中的集体智慧及其影响因素研究

合作学习是应对信息时代学习困境的有效途径。研究一探索了合作学习群体中是否存在集体智慧,研究二比较了互动小组和名义小组在创新观点产生任务中的表现,研究三考察了合作学习小组在群体决策中的表现及其成员的观点和主观自信的影响。研究表明：在长期合作学习小组的多重任务表现中存在代表群体整体一般能力的C因素,即存在集体智慧;在创新观点的产生中,社会影响不利于集体智慧发挥作用;在困难问题解决的判断与决策中,集体智慧发挥的作用更明显,较不会受到个别成员的主观自信、实力和多数人意见左右。建议在合作学习等群体活动中通过策略选择和规则设置促进集体智慧发挥作用。     

Pollock on token physicalism,agent materialism and strong artificial intelligence

An examination of John Pollock's theory of artificial intelligence and philosophy of mind raises difficulties for his mechanist concept of person. Token physicalism, agent materialism, and strong artificial intelligence are so related that if the first two propositions are not well‐established, then there is no justification for believing that an artificial consciousness can be designed and built. Pollock's arguments are shown to be inconclusive in upholding a functionalist theory of persons as supervenient but purely physical entities. In part this is the result of Pollock's thin definition of the concept of supervenience, according to which any complex supervenes on its proper parts. The limitations of this account are apparent when contrasted with richer conceptions of supervenience, such as Joseph Margolis’. But on Margolis’ theory, the mind and its expressions supervene on or rise above their material embodiments in the sense that they cannot be fully explained in physical terms, which contradicts Pollock's token physicalism and agent materialism. The consequence for Pollock's project to explain the mind as mechanical, and to manufacture artificial persons, is that these systems can at best aspire to impressive innovations in weak artificial intelligence, but realistically cannot aspire to strong or mentalistic artificial intelligence.